Ukrainian Grammar Guide

Agreement & Declension

• Adjectives: Agreement and the Two Stem TypesA1 — Ukrainian adjectives AGREE with their noun in gender, number, and case — the same word changes ending depending on what it describes. The dictionary form is masculine nominative singular (нови́й, си́ній); each adjective then has feminine, neuter, and plural forms and runs through all seven cases. Every adjective belongs to one of two stem types — HARD (нови́й / нова́ / нове́ / нові́) or SOFT (си́ній / си́ня / си́нє / си́ні) — and the stem type drives every ending.
• Hard-Stem Adjective DeclensionA2 — The full declension of hard-stem adjectives (the нови́й 'new' type) across all seven cases, three singular genders, and the plural. The endings — -ого, -ому, -им, -ою, -их, -ими — are the same set you meet on demonstratives and most pronouns, so learning нови́й unlocks the agreement endings for той, котри́й, and the bulk of the adjective system at once. Includes the velar-stem spelling (вели́кий → вели́кого but вели́кі) and the animacy split in the masculine and plural accusative.
• Soft-Stem Adjective DeclensionB1 — The small but high-frequency soft-stem class — си́ній, да́вній, дома́шній, сусі́дній and the rest of the -ній family — runs a paradigm parallel to the hard stem but carries the SOFT series of endings throughout: -ього not -ого, -ьому not -ому, -ім not -им, -іх not -их. Once you know which adjectives are soft, you apply one extra rule and the whole declension follows.
• Adjective Agreement in All CasesB1 — Every modifier in a Ukrainian noun phrase — possessive, demonstrative, and adjective alike — agrees with the head noun in gender, number, AND case all at once. Decline a full phrase like мій нови́й украї́нський друг through all seven cases (gen мого́ ново́го украї́нського дру́га, dat моє́му ново́му украї́нському дру́гові, instr мої́м нови́м украї́нським дру́гом) and the agreement chain falls into place: change the case of the noun, and every word in front of it changes to match.

Short Forms & Comparison

• The Comparative DegreeA2 — How to say 'newer, taller, better' in Ukrainian. The default is SYNTHETIC: add -ший/-іший to the stem (нові́ший, добрі́ший), often with a consonant mutation (доро́жчий, ви́щий, ни́жчий). A few adjectives are SUPPLETIVE (кра́щий 'better', гі́рший 'worse', бі́льший 'bigger', ме́нший 'smaller'). Longer/borrowed adjectives take the ANALYTIC більш + adjective. And 'than' has THREE renderings: за + accusative, ніж + nominative, від + genitive.
• The Superlative DegreeA2 — How to say 'the newest, the tallest, the best' in Ukrainian. The superlative is built in TWO steps: take the comparative, then glue най- onto the front — кра́щий → найкра́щий, ви́щий → найви́щий. The prefixes якнай-/щонай- turn it into 'as X as possible' in a single word (якнайшви́дше 'as fast as possible'), and longer adjectives use the analytic найбі́льш + adjective. 'Of/among' the group is з-поміж / серед + genitive.
• Short and Predicative Adjective FormsB2 — Ukrainian has largely LOST the productive short-form predicative adjective — you say Він здоро́вий, Вона́ щасли́ва (full forms) where Russian uses short forms. Only a small frozen set survives: рад, пе́вен, зго́ден, ва́рт, пови́нен, по́вен, го́ден, ви́нен, гото́в — used predicatively, often in fixed expressions, with -ен for masculine and -на for feminine. Using the FULL predicative adjective is the Ukrainian norm, and this is a notable divergence from Russian.

Special Adjectives

• Possessive Adjectives (-ів, -ин)B1 — Ukrainian can turn a person-noun into a possessive ADJECTIVE — ма́ма → ма́мин, ба́тько → ба́тьків, сестра́ → сестри́н — that then agrees with the thing owned (ма́мина су́мка, ба́тьків капелю́х). Masculine owners give -ів/-ова/-ове, feminine owners give -ин/-ина/-ине. It is the warm, idiomatic alternative to the genitive (су́мка ма́ми) and is the natural choice for close, individual owners — a construction English has no parallel for.
• Adjectival Nouns and Word OrderB1 — Some everyday Ukrainian nouns ARE grammatically adjectives — хво́рий 'patient', наре́чена 'bride', майбу́тнє 'the future', вче́ний 'scholar' — and they decline as adjectives, taking adjective case endings (поговори́в з вче́ним). This page teaches these adjectival nouns and the rules of adjective–noun word order, where the default is adjective-before-noun (вели́ке мі́сто) and a following adjective signals a fixed term or terminology (Черво́на кни́га vs кни́га черво́на 'the book is red').
• Colour and Quality AdjectivesA1 — The everyday descriptive words — colours (черво́ний, жо́втий, зеле́ний, чо́рний, бі́лий) and qualities (вели́кий, до́брий, га́рний, висо́кий, дороги́й) — all AGREE with their noun and decline like any adjective: черво́ний прапор / черво́на кві́тка / черво́не я́блуко / черво́ні кві́ти. One colour breaks the mould: си́ній 'blue' is SOFT-stemmed (си́ня / си́нє / си́ні, gen си́нього), unlike hard черво́ний. And the colours combine into the national си́ньо-жо́втий 'blue-and-yellow'.

• Forming Adverbs (-о, -е, по-...-ому/-ськи)A2 — Most Ukrainian adverbs of manner come straight off the adjective: take the stem and add -о (швидки́й → шви́дко, га́рний → га́рно), or -е after soft and hushing stems (до́бре, блиску́че). A special 'in an X way' set uses the hyphenated по-...-ому / по-...-ськи pattern (по-но́вому, по-украї́нськи, по-моє́му 'in my opinion'). Many common adverbs are frozen case-forms of nouns (вра́нці, вдень). And comparative adverbs share the adjective's -ше / -іше form (шви́дше, кра́ще, бі́льше), so the adverb and the adjective's comparative look identical. The trap English speakers miss: 'in Ukrainian' as a manner is по-украї́нськи — distinct from говори́ти украї́нською (the instrumental that names the language).
• Adverbs of Place and Direction (Тут, Туди, Звідти)A2 — Just as Ukrainian prepositions split space into location (де?), direction-to (куди?) and direction-from (зві́дки?), the place adverbs come in matching three-way sets that English collapses into 'here / there'. де? gives тут / там (and вдо́ма, всю́ди, ніде́, де́сь); куди? gives сюди́ / туди́ (and додо́му, ніку́ди, куди́сь); зві́дки? gives зві́дси / зві́дти (and зві́дусіль, нізві́дки). So 'I'm here' is Я тут but 'come here' is Іди́ сюди́, and 'I'm from here' is Я зві́дси — three different words. The home triple вдо́ма / додо́му / з до́му works the same way. Picking тут where Ukrainian needs сюди́ is the classic English-speaker error.
• Adverbs of Time and FrequencyA2 — When and how often — the everyday set: за́раз/тепе́р 'now', по́тім 'then', вчо́ра/сього́дні/за́втра, plus the parts-of-day and season adverbs that are really frozen case-forms (вра́нці, уночі́, влі́тку, восени́), and the frequency scale за́вжди → ча́сто → і́нколи → рі́дко → ніко́ли. Two things English speakers miss: 'every day/week' is a single що- word (щодня́, щоти́жня), and ніко́ли 'never' forces double negation (Я ніко́ли не…).
• Adverbs of Degree and Manner (Дуже, Занадто, Так)A2 — The intensifier set — ду́же 'very', зана́дто/на́дто 'too', до́сить 'quite', тро́хи 'a little', ма́йже 'almost', зо́всім 'completely / (not) at all', ле́две 'barely', цілко́м 'entirely' — plus manner words (так 'so/this way', разом, окремо, навмисне). Two traps: ду́же covers both 'very' (with adjectives) and 'much/a lot' (after verbs: ду́же лю́блю), while бага́то is 'a lot' only with countable amounts; and зо́всім flips meaning under negation (зо́всім нови́й 'brand new' vs зо́всім не розумі́ю 'don't understand at all'). Includes the так…що 'so…that' result construction.
• Predicative Adverbs (Можна, Треба, Холодно)B1 — The words that ARE the predicate of a subjectless sentence — state predicatives with a dative experiencer (Мені́ хо́лодно 'I'm cold', Їй су́мно 'she's sad', Тут га́рно 'it's nice here') and modal predicatives of possibility and necessity (мо́жна 'one may', не мо́жна 'must not', тре́ба/потрі́бно 'must', слід 'should', ва́рто 'worth'). In the present there is NO verb 'to be' (Мені́ хо́лодно); past and future borrow було́ / бу́де (Було́ хо́лодно), and modals take a bare infinitive (Тре́ба йти).
• Comparative and Superlative AdverbsB1 — How Ukrainian forms degrees of adverbs — the comparative in -ше/-іше, the suppletive set (краще, гірше, більше, менше, далі), the superlative with най-, and the якнай-/щонай- 'as…as possible' intensifier.
• Quantity Adverbs (Багато, Мало, Скільки, Стільки)A2 — The Ukrainian quantity words — багато, мало, трохи, скільки, стільки and friends — that govern the genitive case and trigger neuter-singular verb agreement, unlike English 'much/many.'
• Negative and Indefinite AdverbsB1 — The adverbial ні-, -сь, будь-, аби-, and -небудь series — ніко́ли 'never' (with obligatory double negation), десь 'somewhere', будь-де 'anywhere', and the нема де + infinitive 'nowhere to…' pattern.

Dialogues

• Знайомство: A First MeetingA1 — An annotated A1 dialogue of two people meeting for the first time — introductions, origins with з + genitive, profession, and the ти/ви choice.
• У кав’ярні: At the CaféA1 — An annotated A1 café dialogue — ordering with Да́йте + accusative, asking the price, the genitive of quantity, and polite дя́кую with the dative.
• Як пройти?: Asking DirectionsA2 — An annotated A2 street dialogue — asking the way with до + genitive, left/right/straight, the imperative поверні́ть, на ро́зі, through + accusative, and motion verbs.
• На ринку: At the MarketA2 — An annotated A2 market dialogue — kilograms with the genitive plural, numeral-noun agreement, market diminutives, and bargaining phrases.
• Про сім’ю: Talking About FamilyA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue about family — possession with у ме́не є, possessives and свій, the verb ма́ти + accusative, and age with the dative.
• Плани на вихідні: Weekend PlansA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue about weekend plans showing the two Ukrainian futures, invitations with давай + future, and the imperfective imperative.
• У лікаря: At the DoctorA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue at the doctor's, showing почуватися + adverb, болить with nominative and dative-of-person, and impersonal dative-experiencer states.
• Телефонна розмова: A Phone CallB1 — An annotated B1 phone-call dialogue showing the dative government of дзвонити/телефонувати, reported speech with що and no backshift, and telephone politeness formulas.
• Співбесіда: A Job InterviewB1 — An annotated B1 job-interview dialogue showing consistent formal ви, profession in the instrumental, perfective past for completed steps, and conditional politeness.
• На вокзалі: At the Train StationB1 — An annotated B1 train-station dialogue showing clock time with о + locative, до + genitive for destinations and tickets, the в/на choice, and їхати vs їздити.
• Невелика суперечка: A Small DisagreementB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue of two friends disagreeing politely — opinion verbs, the а/але contrast, the insistence particle же/ж, and softening.
• День народження: A Birthday PartyB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue at a birthday party — congratulations with з + instrumental, wishes with бажа́ти + dative + genitive, toasts with за + accusative, and the vocative.
• Оренда квартири: Renting an ApartmentB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue about viewing and negotiating a flat — the locative for rooms, prices in the genitive plural, чи можна requests, comparatives, and у + genitive possession.
• Ранок: A Morning RoutineA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue about a morning routine — reflexive verbs (прокида́тися, вмива́тися, одяга́тися), the perfective narrative chain, clock time with о + locative, and time adverbs.
• У готелі: At the HotelB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue at a hotel reception — the formal ви register, conditional requests (Я хотів би…), ordinal floors with на + locative, prices in гривень (gen pl), and politeness formulas.
• У магазині одягу: Buying ClothesA2 — An annotated A2 clothes-shopping dialogue — adjective-noun agreement in colours, sizes, trying on with приміряти, comparatives, the dative of пасувати, and demonstratives цей/той.
• Захоплення: Talking About HobbiesB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue about hobbies — захоплюватися/цікавитися with the instrumental, грати в vs на, любити plus infinitive, and frequency adverbs.
• В аптеці: At the PharmacyB1 — An annotated B1 pharmacy dialogue — ліки від with the genitive, the dative experiencer of болить, dosage with на день, the dative of need, and polite requests.
• Запрошення: Inviting a FriendA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue about inviting a friend out — Хочеш…?, Давай plus future, the imperfective imperative Приходь, о plus locative for clock time, and how to accept or decline.
• Загублена річ: A Lost ItemB1 — An annotated B1 lost-property dialogue — imperfective background versus perfective events in past narration, the reflexive загубитися, describing objects with який, де with the locative, and у мене був.
• На роботі: At the OfficeB1 — An annotated B1 office dialogue — modal necessity with треба and мушу, до + genitive deadlines, the instrumental of profession, and polite formal ви at work.
• Скарга: Making a ComplaintB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue at a customer-service desk — скаржитися на + accusative, conditional softening (я хотів би), impersonal passives (мене не попередили), and the contrast markers однак and проте.
• Обговорення новин: Discussing the NewsB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue about the day's news — opinion frames (на мою думку, вважаю, що), reported speech with no backshift (кажуть, що), the -но/-то impersonal passive of headlines, and hedging markers.
• У ба́нку: At the BankB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue at a bank — opening an account, the card, withdrawing and depositing money, exchange rates and fees, the genitive of amounts, and formal ви with polite conditional requests.
• Порада другові: Giving a Friend AdviceB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue of a friend giving advice — раджу + dative + infinitive, тобі варто/слід, the conditional frame на твоєму місці я б…, and softened imperatives.
• Спогади дитинства: Childhood MemoriesB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue of two friends remembering their childhoods — the habitual imperfective past, у дитинстві, diminutives, and the contrast with one-off perfective memories.
• Плануємо подорож: Planning a TripB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue of two friends planning a trip — the synthetic and analytic future, motion verbs with destinations (до+gen, в/на+acc), the instrumental of transport, and conditional suggestions.
• Торгуємося: Negotiating a PriceB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue of haggling at a market — comparatives дешевше/дорожче, за + accusative for a price, the genitive plural гривень, and the якби-conditional of bargaining.
• Офіційний лист: A Formal EmailC1 — An annotated C1 formal email — the vocative opening Шановний пане, capitalized polite Ви, the -но/-то impersonal passive, conditional politeness, and the closing З повагою.
• Замовлення доставки: Ordering DeliveryA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue — ordering food for delivery by phone: accusative orders, the address with на + accusative for direction, quantities, time with за + accusative, and paying готівкою / карткою.
• Розмова про погоду: Weather ChatA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue of weather small talk — impersonal predicates (хо́лодно, со́нячно), Йде дощ / сніг, degrees, the бу́де forecast, and seasons in the instrumental (взи́мку, влі́тку).
• У музеї: At the MuseumB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue at an art museum — buying tickets, the -но/-то impersonal (засновано, написано), agentless 3rd-plural (привезли), dates with centuries, and admiration exclamatives (Який гарний!).
• Про спорт: Talking About SportsB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue about football — вболівати за + accusative ('support a team'), грати в + accusative, виграти/програти, comparatives (кращий за), and the instrumental of interest (захоплюватися спортом).
• Готуємо разом: Cooking TogetherB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue cooking together — imperative aspect in instructions (наріж, додай vs помішуй), the partitive genitive (додай солі 'add some salt'), quantities in the genitive, and sequence connectors.
• Прощання в аеропорту: Saying GoodbyeB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue of an emotional airport farewell — the synthetic future (сумуватиму), genitive wishes (Щасливої дороги!), Бережи себе with the reflexive себе, and the якби conditional.
• Розмова з сусідом: Chatting with a NeighbourA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue of two neighbours making small talk — vocative address, Як справи? answers, weather chat, polite ви, and the particles that make it sound native.
• Що порадите?: Asking for a RecommendationB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue in which a customer asks a salesperson for advice — раджу + dative, the recommendation frame, comparatives кращий/найкращий, and conditional softening with би/б.
• Повернення товару: Returning a PurchaseB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue of a customer returning faulty goods — formal ви, скаржитися на + acc, conditional politeness, causal через те, що clauses, and the -но/-то impersonal (буде повернено).
• Обговорення книги: Discussing a BookB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue of two friends discussing a novel — Я вважаю, що…, reported speech, passive participles (написана, видана), stance markers, and захоплюватися + instrumental.
• Перший день на роботі: First Day at WorkB1 — An annotated B1 dialogue of a new employee's first day — instrumental profession (працюю аналітиком), workplace locatives (в офісі, на нараді), modality треба/можна, formal ви, and the vocative.
• Справи на день: Daily ErrandsA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue of two flatmates planning a round of errands — motion verbs to destinations, тре́ба + infinitive, за + instrumental for fetching, and спе́ршу/по́тім sequencing.
• Подяка: Expressing GratitudeA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue of warm thanks and the replies to it — дя́кувати + dative + за + accusative, the gendered вдя́чний/вдя́чна, and the set responses Нема́ за що / Не ма́єте за що.
• На пошті: At the Post OfficeA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue at a Ukrainian post office — sending a letter and a parcel with відправити + accusative + до + genitive, prices in гривень, the на-locative, and 'how much does it cost'.
• Плани на майбутнє: Future PlansB2 — An annotated B2 dialogue about future plans — the synthetic future (працюватиму), буду + infinitive, якщо + future, the якби conditional with б/би, and hedging with ймовірно / можливо.
• Зустріч гостей: Welcoming GuestsA2 — An annotated A2 dialogue of a host welcoming guests — the warm imperfective imperatives (Заходьте! Сідайте!), hospitality formulas (Ласкаво просимо, Почувайтеся як удома), diminutives of warmth, and the vocative in address.

Literary Excerpts

• Literary Text: Shevchenko, «Заповіт»B2 — An annotated reading of the opening of Taras Shevchenko's «Заповіт» (1845): the imperative поховайте, the як…то condition, marked poetic word order, the euphonic В-, the impersonal було видно/чути, and the diminutive-rich folk register.
• Literary Text: Lesya Ukrainka, «Contra spem spero!»C1 — An annotated C1 reading of the opening of Lesya Ukrainka's «Contra spem spero!» (1890): the synthetic vs analytic future, the reflexive -сь/-ся, the emphatic vocative-like address Гетьте, marked poetic syntax, and the rhetorical Ні.
• Literary Text: «Ріпка» (folk tale excerpt)A2 — An annotated reading of the cumulative folk tale «Ріпка», showing perfective narrative chains, diminutives, the cumulative refrain, and accusative objects in authentic A2 Ukrainian.
• Literary Text: Ivan Franko, «Каменярі» (excerpt)C1 — An annotated C1 reading of an excerpt from Ivan Franko's «Каменярі» — the collective 'ми', the instrumental of means, marked poetic syntax, archaic forms, and the central allegory.
• Literary Text: Folk song «Ой вербо, вербо»B1 — An annotated B1 reading of the folk song «Ой вербо, вербо» — the living vocative, the lyric particle 'ой', diminutives, parallelism, and marked song syntax.
• Literary Text: Skovoroda, афоризми (aphorisms)C1 — An annotated reading of three aphorisms of Hryhorii Skovoroda (d. 1794): the gnomic present, the omitted copula, the imperative of judgement, the dative of relation, and 18th-century philosophical lexis with modern equivalents.
• Folk Tale: «Колобок» (Kolobok)A2 — An annotated reading of the opening of the Ukrainian folk tale «Колобок»: the perfective narrative chain, the past tense, the diminutive Колобок, the «по + dative» of motion, and the cumulative repeated song.
• Literary Text: Tychyna, «Арфами, арфами…»C1 — An annotated reading of the opening of Pavlo Tychyna's «Арфами, арфами…» (1914): the instrumental plural, sound symbolism, the present perfective обізвалися, marked poetic word order, and the past passive participle as a one-word epithet.
• Literary Text: Котляревський, «Енеїда» (excerpt)C1 — An annotated reading of the opening stanza of Kotliarevsky's «Енеїда» (1798): the burlesque vernacular, the colloquial удавсь, the archaic conjunction хоть and preposition од, the archaic comparative завзяті́йший, and the folk register that founded modern literary Ukrainian.
• Literary Text: Леся Українка, «Лісова пісня»C1 — An annotated reading of Mavka's lines from Lesya Ukrainka's verse drama «Лісова пісня» (1911): the negative imperative не зневажай, the partitive/qualitative genitive chain душі́ своє́ї цві́ту, the comparative чарівні́ший від, the gnomic present, and the lyrical word order of a modernist masterpiece.
• Literary Text: Франко, «Захар Беркут»C1 — An annotated reading of the opening of Ivan Franko's prose novel «Захар Беркут» (1883): the present-tense scene-setting, the genitive-rich descriptive chain, the archaic locatives in -ім (лазуровім, чистім), the verb колесувати, and the demonstrative се ('this is').

Non-Fiction

• Non-Fiction: A News Brief (Новинна замітка)B2 — An annotated B2 reading of a short Ukrainian news brief — the -но/-то impersonal passive, attribution phrases, nominalization, dates and numbers, and agentless journalistic register.
• Non-Fiction: A Recipe for Borshch (Рецепт борщу)A2 — An annotated A2 reading of a simple borshch recipe — infinitive and imperative instructions, accusative objects, quantities with the genitive, sequence adverbs, and aspect in procedural text.
• Non-Fiction: Encyclopedia Article — Київ (Kyiv)B2 — An annotated encyclopedic paragraph about Kyiv, training the nominal style, -но/-то passives, genitive chains, and date constructions of reference prose.
• Non-Fiction: Opinion Column — Колонка думокC1 — An annotated op-ed excerpt for C1, training stance markers, concession, rhetorical questions, modality, and the evaluative lexis of argumentative Ukrainian.
• Non-Fiction: Прогноз погоди (A Weather Forecast)B1 — An annotated reading of an authentic-style Ukrainian weather forecast: the synthetic future (похолодає), impersonal weather verbs, the agentless register (очікується), temperatures with до + genitive, and на + accusative for forecast time.
• Біографія: Тарас ШевченкоB2 — An annotated reading of an encyclopedic-style biography of Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861): past-perfective narration, dates in the genitive, the subjectless -но/-то passive (було видано), the instrumental of role (став символом), and the nominal, connector-driven style of real Ukrainian reference prose.
• Інструкція: Filling Out a FormB1 — An annotated reading of authentic bureaucratic instructions for filling out a form: the polite ви-imperative (заповніть, вкажіть, поставте), the impersonal необхідно вказати, prepositional phrases (у графі), заголовними літерами, and the sequencing connectors of official Ukrainian.
• Non-Fiction: A Public Announcement (Оголошення)B1 — An annotated B1 reading of two everyday Ukrainian notices — a lost-item announcement and an event announcement: the imperative/infinitive directives, dates and times in the right cases (о + locative), contact formulas, the -но/-то impersonal, and the formal ви.
• Non-Fiction: A Job Advertisement (Вакансія)B1 — An annotated B1 reading of an authentic-style Ukrainian job advert: the impersonal потрі́бно/вимага́ється, the verbal-noun listing of requirements (знання́, вмі́ння, до́свід), infinitives of duties, з/до + genitive for hours, the formal register, and contact formulas.
• Historical Note: «Коро́тка істори́чна дові́дка»B2 — An annotated reading of a B2 encyclopedic passage on Kyivan Rus: the -но/-то impersonal passive (засно́вано, охре́щено), perfective narration in the past, dates in the genitive and Roman-numeral centuries, у + locative for places, and formal connectors (отже, таким чином).
• Музе́йна етике́тка: A Museum LabelB2 — An annotated reading of two authentic-style Ukrainian museum labels — the nominal style, the -но/-то passive (дато́вано, знайдено), passive participles (виготовлений), centuries in Roman numerals and the genitive, materials in the genitive (полотно́, олі́я) and attribution за словами.
• Меню ресторану: A Restaurant MenuA2 — An annotated A2 reading of a short Ukrainian menu — dish names built with з + instrumental, the genitive of ingredients, prices in гривень, portion words, and the structure of menu categories.

Proverbs

• Proverb: «Без праці не виловиш і рибки зі ставка»A2 — A close reading of the proverb 'no fish without effort' — без + genitive, the generalized 2nd-person negated perfective future, genitive of negation, and euphonic зі.
• Proverb: «Як дбаєш, так і маєш»A2 — A close reading of 'you reap what you sow' — the як…так і correlative pair, the generalized 2nd-person present, and the gnomic present tense.
• Proverb: «Сло́во — срі́бло, мовча́ння — зо́лото»A2 — A close reading of the proverb 'word is silver, silence is golden' — how the dash replaces the verb 'to be' and how the neuter -ння verbal noun works.
• Proverb: «Не кажи́ «гоп», до́ки не переско́чиш»B1 — A close reading of 'don't say hop until you've jumped over' — why prohibitions take the imperfective imperative and how доки не + perfective future builds an 'until' clause.
• Proverb: «Язи́к до Ки́єва доведе́»B1 — A close reading of 'the tongue will lead you to Kyiv' — how до + genitive marks a destination and why the perfective future доведе names a single guaranteed result.
• Proverb: «Не май сто карбо́ванців, а май сто дру́зів»B1 — A close reading of 'have not a hundred coins but a hundred friends' — the imperative май, the numeral сто + genitive plural, and the corrective не…, а… contrast.
• Proverb: «Де то́нко, там і рве́ться»B1 — A close reading of 'where it's thin, that's where it tears' — the де…там correlative, the predicative adverb тонко, the middle-voice reflexive рветься, and the gnomic present.
• Proverb: «Тихше їдеш — далі будеш»B1 — A close grammatical reading of the proverb «Тихше їдеш — далі будеш», anchoring comparative adverbs, the generalized second-person, the implicit чим…тим correlative, and the dash that replaces the verb 'to be'.
• Proverb: «Вовка боятися — в ліс не ходити»B1 — A close grammatical reading of the proverb «Вовка боятися — в ліс не ходити», anchoring боятися + genitive, the infinitive-as-condition pattern, accusative of motion after в, and the euphonic в/у choice.
• Proverb: «Свій до свого по своє»B2 — A close grammatical reading of the proverb «Свій до свого по своє», showing the reflexive possessive свій in three case forms in a single elliptical phrase: nominative свій, genitive свого after до, accusative своє after по.
• Proverb: «Крапля камінь точить»B1 — A close reading of the proverb 'the drop wears the stone' — the gnomic present точить, the inanimate accusative камінь (= nominative form), basic subject–verb–object order, and the article-free Ukrainian noun phrase.
• Proverb: «Друзі пізнаються в біді»B1 — A close reading of 'a friend in need is a friend indeed' — the reflexive-passive пізнаються (-ся), the locative в біді after в, the plural subject друзі, and the gnomic present.
• Proverb: «Сім разі́в відмі́ряй, оди́н раз відрі́ж»B1 — A close reading of 'measure seven times, cut once' — the perfective imperatives відмі́ряй / відрі́ж, the counted раз forms (сім разі́в, оди́н раз), and the parallel command structure.
• Proverb: «Де дво́є, там тре́тій за́йвий»B2 — A close reading of 'two's company, three's a crowd' — the де…там correlative, the collective numeral дво́є, the dropped copula, and the soft-stem ordinal тре́тій.
• Proverb: «Як прийшло́, так і пішло́»B1 — A close reading of 'easy come, easy go' — the як…так correlative, the perfective neuter pasts прийшло́ / пішло́ from the suppletive -йти root, and the zero (impersonal) subject.
• Proverb: «Своя́ ха́та — своя́ пра́вда»B2 — A close reading of 'one's own home, one's own rule' — the reflexive possessive свій / своя́ agreeing twice, the dash standing in for the dropped copula, and the parallel predicate-nominative structure.
• Proverb: «Не все те зо́лото, що блищи́ть»B1 — A close reading of 'all that glitters is not gold' — the partitive negation не все ('not all'), the relative що ('that which'), the gnomic present блищи́ть, and the dropped copula.
• Proverb: «Хто рано встає, тому Бог дає»A2 — An annotated reading of the proverb «Хто рано встає, тому Бог дає» (the early bird): the headless relative хто…тому, the dative recipient тому, and the gnomic present встає/дає.
• Proverb: «Яке коріння, таке й насіння»B2 — An annotated reading of «Яке коріння, таке й насіння» (like parents, like children): the яке…таке correlative with neuter agreement, the collective -ння neuters, the dropped copula, and the gnomic generalisation.
• Proverb: «Не місце красить людину, а людина місце»B2 — An annotated reading of «Не місце красить людину, а людина — місце» (it's the person who makes the place): the не…а correction, the accusative objects, the present-general красить, and the chiasmus with verb gapping.
• Proverb: «Поспішиш — людей насмішиш»B1 — An annotated reading of «Поспіши́ш — люде́й насміши́ш» (haste makes waste): the conditional-by-juxtaposition with no conjunction, the two perfective futures, the generalised 2nd person, and the genitive-plural animate object людей.
• Proverb: «Хто шукає, той знайде»A2 — An annotated reading of «Хто шукає, той знайде» (seek and you shall find): the headless relative хто…той, the gnomic imperfective шукає vs the perfective future знайде, and the generalized 3rd person.
• Proverb: «Не спитавши броду, не лізь у воду»B2 — An annotated reading of «Не спита́вши бро́ду, не лізь у во́ду» (look before you leap): the perfective verbal adverb спита́вши, the negative imperative не лізь, the genitive бро́ду under negation, and у + accusative for motion into.
• Proverb: «Язик без кісток»B1 — An annotated reading of «Язи́к без кісто́к» (the tongue has no bones — said of a chatterbox): без + genitive plural, the fleeting-vowel drop in кі́стка → кісто́к, the copula-less nominal sentence, and the metonymy язи́к.
• Proverb: «Поки живу — сподіваюся»C1 — An annotated reading of «По́ки живу́ — сподіва́юся» (while I live, I hope; dum spiro spero): the по́ки temporal clause with the present, the inherent reflexive сподіва́тися, pro-drop (no spoken я), the generalising 1st person, and the dash for the dropped 'then'.
• Proverb: «Де любо́в, там і Бог»B1 — A close reading of 'where there's love, there's God' — the де…там correlative frame, the silent present-tense copula, the feminine -ь noun любов, and the emphatic і.
• Proverb: «Кра́ще сини́ця в рука́х, ніж жура́вель у не́бі»B2 — A close reading of 'a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush' — the comparative кра́ще, ніж 'than', the locatives в рука́х / у не́бі, and the elliptical X-better-than-Y frame with no verb.
• Proverb: «Не май сто гри́вень, а май сто дру́зів»A2 — A close reading of 'don't have a hundred hryvnias, have a hundred friends' — the imperative май from мати, сто + genitive plural (гри́вень, дру́зів), and the corrective не…, а… contrast.
• Proverb: «Лю́биш ката́тися — люби́ й са́ночки вози́ти»B2 — A close reading of 'if you like sledding, you must like pulling the sled too' — the conjunctionless conditional, the generalized 2nd-person люби́ш, the imperative люби́, the reflexive ката́тися and the indeterminate motion verb вози́ти.
• Proverb: «Мій дім — моя фортеця»A2 — A close reading of 'my home is my castle' — possessive agreement (мій/моя), the dash that replaces the missing copula, the predicate nominative, and the fleeting vowel in дім → до́му.
• Proverb: «Повторення — мати навчання»A2 — A close reading of 'repetition is the mother of learning' — the dash that replaces the verb 'to be', the neuter -ння verbal nouns повто́рення / навча́ння, and the genitive of relation мати навчання.
• Proverb: «Краще поганий мир, ніж добра війна»B2 — A close reading of 'a bad peace is better than a good war' — the comparative кра́ще, ніж 'than', the gender-agreeing adjectives (пога́ний мир m / до́бра війна́ f), and the verbless antithesis.

Accusative

• Accusative: FormsA1 — The accusative (знахідний) is the direct-object case, and only feminine -а/-я nouns have an ending of their own (-у/-ю: книгу, школу); everything else borrows its accusative from the nominative (things: бачу стіл) or the genitive (living beings: бачу брата), with animacy as the switch.
• Accusative: Uses Beyond the Direct ObjectB1 — The accusative does more than mark the object — with в/у, на, за, під, через it marks motion TOWARD a target (іду в школу), it expresses bare-preposition duration (чекав годину 'waited an hour'), and it stands in a pivotal contrast with the locative: the same prepositions в/у and на take the accusative for direction (куди? в школу) but the locative for static location (де? в школі).
• Animacy in the Accusative: Edge CasesB2 — Grammatical animacy is not biology: the dead (ба́чу мерця́), playing cards and chess pieces (відкри́ти туза́, взя́ти короля́), and dolls behave as ANIMATE — their accusative copies the genitive — while collectives like наро́д and на́товп stay inanimate, so the accusative occasionally surprises (купи́ти коня́ vs ба́чу буди́нок).

Case in Use

• Which Case After Which PrepositionA2 — The master map of preposition–case government: which case each Ukrainian preposition demands. Genitive (без, для, від, до, з, бі́ля, пі́сля, про́ти), dative (завдяки́, всу́переч), accusative for motion/topic (про, че́рез, plus в/на/за/під for direction), instrumental for accompaniment and static position (з 'with', над, під, за, пе́ред, між), and the always-locative у/в, на, при, по, о. Plus the crucial alternating prepositions (в/у, на, за, під, над, пе́ред, між) that flip case to mark motion (куди? → accusative) versus location (де? → locative/instrumental).
• Motion vs Location: The Case SwitchA2 — The three-way pivot at the centre of Ukrainian prepositions: куди? (motion toward → accusative: іду в шко́лу, кладу́ на стіл, сів за стіл), де? (location → locative with в/на, instrumental with за/під/над: я в шко́лі, лежи́ть на столі́, сиди́ть за столо́м), and зві́дки? (origin → genitive: зі шко́ли, від ліка́ря). The same preposition keeps its shape; only the case changes — в шко́лу, в шко́лі, зі шко́ли differ by case alone — so mastering the куди/де/зві́дки question is the master key to the whole preposition system.
• Cases in Time ExpressionsB1 — The grid for telling time in Ukrainian, because each kind of time-reference takes a different case: clock time uses о + locative (о тре́тій), weekdays use у/в + accusative (у понеді́лок), months/years/periods use у/в + locative (у бе́резні, у 2024 ро́ці), calendar dates use the bare genitive (пе́ршого тра́вня), duration uses the bare accusative (ці́лий день), 'within/after X' uses за/че́рез + accusative (за годи́ну), seasons-as-when use instrumental adverbs (взи́мку, навесні́), and frequency uses що- (щодня́) or раз на + accusative (раз на ти́ждень).
• Verbs That Govern a Specific CaseB1 — Many Ukrainian verbs do not take the expected accusative direct object — they govern the genitive (боюся темряви 'I fear the dark'), the dative (дякую тобі 'thank you', допомагаю мамі 'I help mum'), or the instrumental (цікавлюся історією 'I'm interested in history', керує фірмою 'manages the firm') — so the verb 'thank, help, be interested in, manage, fear' must each be learned together with the case it demands.
• Reading Case Endings in a SentenceB1 — An integrative parsing workflow: because Ukrainian word order is free, it is the ENDINGS, not the position, that tell you who does what to whom — so you learn to scan a sentence, find the verb and the nominative subject, then decode each oblique noun's ending plus its preposition to assign its case and role (nom subject, acc object, dat recipient, gen 'of/after до', instr means/'with з', loc location).
• When Cases Look Alike (Syncretism)B2 — Many Ukrainian endings are ambiguous in isolation: стіл is both nominative and accusative, кни́ги is both genitive singular and nominative plural, ба́чу бра́та uses gen=acc for animates, ха́ті is both dative and locative. How animacy, agreeing adjectives, prepositions and word order resolve which case is meant — and why recognising syncretism keeps you from misreading a sentence.
• Genitive vs Accusative ObjectsB2 — When a direct object goes into the genitive instead of the accusative: under negation (не чита́ю газе́т), in the partitive 'some' sense (ви́пив води́ vs ви́пив во́ду), and after verbs that govern the genitive (бажа́ти, потребува́ти, зазна́ти, чека́ти + gen/acc). The object case carries meaning — accusative = the whole, definite thing; genitive = a part, some, or under negation.
• Cases Without Prepositions: A SummaryB1 — A synthesis page: the work each case does with NO preposition, where English needs one. Genitive = possession & 'of' & dates (кни́га бра́та, пе́ршого тра́вня); dative = recipient & experiencer & age (да́ти дру́гові, мені́ хо́лодно); accusative = direct object & duration (чека́в годи́ну); instrumental = means, route, time, predicate (їхав авто́бусом, лі́сом, ста́в лі́карем); locative is the one case that NEVER appears bare.
• Frozen Case Forms in Set PhrasesB2 — Dozens of everyday Ukrainian adverbs and fixed phrases are FROZEN case forms — old instrumentals (пі́шки, бі́гом, кро́ком), frozen locatives (вра́нці, взи́мку, на́віть до́ма), genitive wishes (До́брого ра́нку!, Сла́ва Бо́гу!), and lexicalized prepositional idioms (на жаль, до ре́чі, без су́мніву, в ці́лому, по су́ті). They transparently contain case endings but no longer decline — the rule is don't analyse, memorise: treat them as single words, not as case forms you can rebuild or 'correct'.

Dative

• Dative: FormsA2 — The dative (давальний) answers кому? 'to whom?' — feminine -а/-я take -і with an obligatory velar mutation (рука→руці, нога→нозі, книга→книзі), masculine persons strongly prefer -ові/-еві (братові, синові, учителеві) over plain -у/-ю, neuters take -у/-ю, and the plural is a uniform -ам/-ям.
• Dative: Core UsesA2 — Beyond the indirect object (дати книгу братові), the dative carries Ukrainian's whole experiencer system: the person who feels, needs, owns an age, or likes something becomes a dative while the verb goes impersonal — мені холодно 'I'm cold', мені двадцять років 'I'm twenty', мені треба йти 'I need to go', мені подобається кава 'I like coffee'.
• The Dative in Impersonal ConstructionsB1 — A whole family of meanings makes the experiencer DATIVE and the sentence subjectless: feelings (Мені́ су́мно), physical states (Мені́ пога́но), needs (Мені́ тре́ба), age (Мені́ два́дцять ро́ків), luck (Мені́ щасти́ть), managing (Мені́ вдало́ся піти́), and seeming (Мені́ здає́ться) — so 'I' becomes мені́ and there's no 'am/was'.

Genitive

• Genitive Singular: FormsA2 — The genitive singular endings by declension — feminine -и/-і, neuter -а/-я, soft-feminine -і — and the famous masculine -а/-у split, where countable, animate, and short nouns take -а (бра́та, ножа́, Ки́єва) while abstract, mass, and many foreign place nouns take -у (цу́кру, снігу, Ло́ндону), a semantically-governed choice with no clean Russian parallel.
• Genitive Masculine -а vs -уB1 — The deep version of Ukrainian's hardest single ending choice — masculine genitive singular -а/-я for persons, animals, countable objects, measures, days, and native cities/rivers (бра́та, ножа́, поне́ділка, Ки́єва, Дніпра́) versus -у/-ю for abstracts, materials, collectives, processes, institutions, and most foreign places (ро́зуму, цу́кру, лі́су, університе́ту, Ло́ндону), including the minimal pairs where the ending itself changes the meaning.
• Genitive Plural: FormsB1 — Ukrainian's hardest ending set, taught as a procedure: the zero ending for feminine -а/-я and neuter -о (often with a fleeting vowel — кни́га→книг, вікно́→ві́кон, сестра́→сесте́р), the -ів/-їв ending for masculines (стіл→столі́в, брат→браті́в), and -ей for soft-feminine -ь and many soft/hushing stems (ніч→ноче́й, кінь→коне́й), with the о/і alternation surfacing in zero-ending forms (нога́→ніг, гора́→гір, шко́ла→шкіл).
• Genitive: Possession and 'of'A2 — How Ukrainian shows possession and the English 'of' relationship — by putting the owner in the genitive AFTER the thing owned (кни́га бра́та 'the brother's book', центр мі́ста 'the centre of the city'), with no apostrophe-s and no separate word for 'of', and with the WHOLE possessor phrase declining (маши́на мого́ дру́га), contrasted with possessive pronouns like мій/твій that agree instead.
• Genitive of Negation and AbsenceA2 — How Ukrainian expresses absence and negation with the genitive — нема́є/нема́ + genitive for 'there is no' (нема́є ча́су, у ме́не нема́є бра́та), не було́/не бу́де + genitive for past and future absence (вчора́ не було́ дощу́), and the case-flip on negated objects where the accusative becomes genitive (Я ма́ю кни́гу → Я не ма́ю кни́ги), the earliest must-know pattern for saying 'I don't have' in Ukrainian.
• Genitive After Numbers and QuantityB1 — When numbers and quantity words trigger the genitive — numbers 5+ (and any number ending in 5–9 or 0) take the genitive PLURAL (п’ять столі́в, де́сять книг, сто гри́вень, два́дцять ро́ків), as do quantity words бага́то, ма́ло, кі́лька, скі́льки, тро́хи; fractions and полови́на/чверть take the genitive singular (полови́на я́блука) — all contrasted with the 2/3/4 rule that takes nominative plural, plus the suppletive рік→ро́ків and люди́на→люде́й you must drill as fixed combinations.
• Genitive: Partitive and DatesB1 — Two more genitive jobs English handles differently: the partitive genitive marks an indefinite portion (налий води 'pour some water', випив води 'drank some water') and lets Ukrainian distinguish 'some' from 'the whole' by case alone (води vs воду); and dates put the ordinal day plus month both in the genitive with no 'on' — першого вересня 'on the first of September'.
• Genitive with Comparatives and QuantifiersB1 — The genitive marks the substance being measured, quantified, or compared: 'than' is від + GENITIVE (ви́щий від бра́та) or за + ACCUSATIVE (ви́щий за бра́та); quantity words (бага́то, ма́ло, чима́ло, бі́льшість, кі́лька) govern the GENITIVE (бі́льшість студе́нтів, бага́то ча́су); and 'some more' is the bare genitive (ще ча́ю, дода́й со́лі).
• Genitive in Time and Date ExpressionsB1 — The genitive runs a huge part of everyday Ukrainian time-talk with NO preposition: calendar dates put the day-ordinal AND the month in the genitive (пе́ршого тра́вня 'on May 1st'), the full year adds …ро́ку (дві ти́сячі два́дцятого ро́ку), and — the surprise — 'this/last/next week/year/month' are bare genitive phrases (цього́ ти́жня, мину́лого ро́ку, насту́пного мі́сяця). Plus parts of a period (на поча́тку мі́сяця) and the що-/ко́жного frequency forms (щодня́, ко́жного дня).

Instrumental

• Instrumental: FormsA2 — The instrumental (орудний) endings — feminine -ою/-ею (кни́гою, земле́ю), masculine and neuter -ом/-ем (столо́м, коне́м, ноже́м, ві́кном, мо́рем), and the dramatic Declension III feminine -ю with consonant DOUBLING (ні́ччю, сі́ллю, по́дорожжю) — plus the one labial exception, любо́в → любо́в’ю, that takes an apostrophe instead of a geminate.
• Instrumental: Core UsesA2 — What the instrumental does — the bare 'by means of' (писа́ти ру́чкою, ї́хати авто́бусом, говори́ти украї́нською) with no preposition, the predicate noun after past/future/infinitive of бу́ти and after ста́ти/працюва́ти (він був учи́телем, хо́чу ста́ти лі́карем), companionship with з (з дру́гом, чай з цу́кром), route (іти́ лі́сом), and time adverbials (вра́нці, весно́ю).
• Instrumental of Time, Manner, and RouteB2 — Beyond means, the bare instrumental works as an adverb: it says WHEN (ра́нком, ве́чором, ні́ччю; весно́ю, лі́том — alongside the adverbs навесні́, влі́тку), HOW (швидки́ми кро́ками, го́лосом), and ROUTE (іти́ лі́сом, доро́гою, спуска́тися схо́дами) — so 'I walk through the park' is Я йду па́рком with no preposition where English needs 'through'.
• The Instrumental of Agent in PassivesB2 — In a Ukrainian passive, the 'by X' agent is the bare INSTRUMENTAL — no preposition: рома́н, напи́саний Шевче́нком 'a novel written by Shevchenko', буди́нок, збудо́ваний робітника́ми. This overlaps in form with the instrumental of MEANS (напи́сано ру́чкою 'written with a pen'), but they differ in role; the -но/-то impersonal is agentless and the -ся passive usually drops the agent — so a NAMED agent appears mostly with the -ний participle.

Locative

• Locative: FormsA2 — The locative (місце́вий) — Ukrainian's only never-bare case, always governed by на/у/в/при/по/о. Its endings (-і / -ї / -ові / -у) and the obligatory velar mutation к→ц, г→з, х→с (на руці́, у кни́зі, на нозі́, у кожу́сі), plus the memorised group of masculines that take a special locative -у (у саду́, на мосту́, на снігу́, у кра́ю).
• Locative: Uses (Location, Time, Topic)A2 — What the locative does — static location with у/в and на (у шко́лі, на столі́, у Ки́єві), the crucial case-not-preposition contrast with the accusative (я в шко́лі 'at school' vs іду́ в шко́лу 'to school'), calendar time with у/в (у сі́чні, у 1991 ро́ці), clock time with о + locative (о тре́тій годи́ні), 'around/along' with по (по мі́сту), and 'at/with' with при.
• The Special Locative in -у/-юB2 — A closed set of short masculine (and a few neuter) nouns take a stressed locative -у́/-ю́ instead of the regular -і — so 'in the garden' is у саду́, not *у саді. The high-frequency list (у саду́, на мосту́, на снігу́, у степу́, на шляху́, у кутку́, в бою́, у гаю́, в Криму́) to memorise, plus the meaning-bearing pairs (на боку́ vs на бо́ці, у ро́ці).

Nominative

• Nominative: Forms and UsesA1 — The nominative (називни́й) is the dictionary form, answering хто? 'who?' / що? 'what?'; it marks the subject and — crucially — the predicate noun after the missing present-tense 'to be', because Ukrainian has no copula in the present (Вона́ лі́карка 'she is a doctor', Київ — столи́ця 'Kyiv is the capital').
• Double Nominative and Naming ConstructionsB1 — Identity and naming sentences chain two nominatives: це + a nominative predicate (Це мій брат), the bare zero-copula predicate (Він студе́нт), apposition where both nouns share the case (мі́сто Ки́їв, у мі́сті Ки́єві), and the present-tense nominative predicate that switches to the instrumental once a verb appears (Він був студе́нтом).

Overview

• The Seven Cases: OverviewA1 — Ukrainian has SEVEN cases — nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and a living vocative — each marked by an ending on the noun rather than by word order, so the same job English does with prepositions and position, Ukrainian does with the word's tail.
• The Four DeclensionsA2 — Ukrainian sorts nouns into four declension classes by gender and ending — I (-а/-я, incl. male nouns like Мико́ла, суддя́), II (consonant/-й/-о, incl. ба́тько, та́то), III (feminine soft -ь), IV (the -ат-/-ен- extenders like теля, ім’я) — and within I and II a hard/soft/mixed stem split decides nearly every competing ending.
• Hard, Soft, and Mixed Stem GroupsA2 — Almost every 'which ending?' question in Ukrainian noun declension reduces to one diagnosis: does the stem end in a hard consonant, a soft one, or a hushing ж/ч/ш/щ? Hard stems take о-endings (столо́м), soft stems take е-endings (коне́м), and mixed hushing stems pattern between them (ноже́м) — one three-way test that unlocks the whole case system.
• Why Cases Matter: A Gentle IntroductionA1 — A friendly first look at the case idea for absolute beginners, using one noun (кни́га 'book') through several roles to show how its ending changes to mark its job: кни́га (subject), кни́гу (object), кни́ги (of the book), кни́зі (to/on the book). English does this with word order and little words like 'of' and 'to'; Ukrainian flexes the noun's tail. The insight: the ending = the role — grasp that one idea and the whole case system stops being scary.

Special Categories

• Special Counted Forms (2/3/4 and Stress)B2 — After два/три/чотири a Ukrainian noun takes the NOMINATIVE PLURAL — not the Russian genitive singular — and crucially the stress often jumps to the ending and differs from the plain plural (два столи́, три си́ни, дві сестри́): a surviving reflex of the lost dual number, the most distinctively Ukrainian corner of the case system, with the adjective wavering between nominative plural and genitive plural (два нові́ / нови́х столи́).

Vocative

• The Vocative Case: OverviewA1 — Ukrainian's living seventh case — the vocative (кли́чний відмі́нок), used whenever you call or address someone directly. Unlike Russian, which lost it, Ukrainian keeps it fully alive and obligatory: Іва́не!, ма́мо!, дру́же!, па́не!, Марі́є!, Тара́се Григо́ровичу! Using the nominative to address a person sounds foreign and faintly rude.
• Vocative: FormsA2 — The full vocative endings, organised by declension: hard masculines take -е with a velar mutation (друг → дру́же, козак → коза́че, Бог → Бо́же), soft/-р/-й masculines take -ю/-у (учи́телю, краю́, Андрі́ю), family diminutives take -у (та́ту, си́ну, ба́тьку), hard feminines take -о (ма́мо, се́стро, Окса́но), soft feminines take -е/-є (зе́мле, Марі́є), and the plural vocative simply equals the nominative plural (друзі!, ді́ти!).
• Using the Vocative in Address and GreetingsB1 — How the vocative actually works in real Ukrainian courtesy: name + patronymic both in the vocative for formal respect (Тара́се Григо́ровичу!, Оле́но Іва́нівно!), title + surname (па́не Шевче́нку!), bare titles (па́не!, па́ні!, добро́дію!, пано́ве!), warm family forms (си́нку, до́ню, бабу́сю), the vocative opening of letters and emails (Шано́вний па́не! / Дорога́ Марі́є!), the plural vocative = nominative plural (друзі!, ді́ти!), and what to avoid — товаришу and the Russian habit of calling out in the nominative.
• Vocative Consonant Mutations and StressB2 — Forming the masculine -е vocative usually means MUTATING a final velar to a hushing sound: к→ч (коза́к → коза́че), г→ж (друг → дру́же), х→ш (пасту́х → пасту́ше), plus the -ець → -че change (хло́пець → хло́пче) and the irregulars Бог → Бо́же, Госпо́дь → Го́споди. The competing endings -у (си́нку, ба́тьку) and soft -ю (краю́, Андрі́ю), and the feminine -о/-е/-ю (ма́мо, Окса́но, Марі́є, ду́ше).

• Imperfective vs Perfective: The Master DecisionB1 — A decision-tree for the single hardest choice in Ukrainian: which aspect. Order the diagnostic questions and most decisions are made for you before you ever weigh 'process vs result' — present/ongoing, repeated/habitual, duration, and phase verbs FORCE the imperfective; a single completed result or one event in a sequence forces the perfective. Worked mini-cases, minimal pairs, and the top-five aspect traps.
• Іти vs Ходити (and the Motion-Verb Choice)A2 — The decision page for every imperfective motion pair: one trip in one direction now or planned (→ іти́, ї́хати, лечу́) versus habit, round-trip, or general ability (→ ходи́ти, ї́здити, літа́ю). Includes the past-tense subtlety (ходи́в = went and came back; ішо́в = was on the way), a flowchart, and eight worked cases.
• В/У vs На for 'at/in/to'B1 — The decision page for в/у vs на. Enclosed spaces, cities and countries take в/у (в Украї́ні, у Льво́ві, в кімна́ті); surfaces, open areas, events, and a lexicalised institution set take на (на робо́ті, на по́шті, на вокза́лі, на ву́лиці, на конце́рті). Includes the heuristic, the memorise-the-на-list approach, and ten fill-in cases. в Украї́ні, never на Україні.
• До vs В/На for 'to' (Direction)B1 — The decision page for 'to/toward'. До + genitive for people, countries, institutions and bounded goals (до лі́каря, до Украї́ни, до шко́ли, до Ки́єва); в/у + accusative or на + accusative for 'into/onto' a space or event (в кімна́ту, на робо́ту, на конце́рт), mirroring the в/на location choice. Motion to a PERSON is always до — до Марі́ї, never в Марі́ю.
• Genitive Masculine -а vs -уB1 — The decision page for the masculine genitive singular -а/-я vs -у/-ю. Concrete countable objects, people, animals, units, days/months and native cities/rivers take -а/-я (бра́та, ножа́, Ки́єва, поне́ділка); abstracts, materials, collectives, feelings, processes, institutions and foreign places take -у/-ю (цу́кру, ро́зуму, лі́су, університе́ту, Ло́ндону). With a sorting drill and the minimal pairs to memorise.
• Якщо vs Якби ('if')B1 — The decision page for Ukrainian's two 'if' conjunctions. Якщо́ = a REAL/open condition with the indicative (usually future): Якщо́ ти при́йдеш, ми пого́воримо. Якби́ = an UNREAL/counterfactual condition with the particle би/б in BOTH clauses: Якби́ я мав час, я б прийшо́в. Plus the чи warning for indirect 'whether' — English 'if' covers all three.
• Знати vs Вміти vs МогтиB1 — The decision page for English 'know' and 'can'. A fact, a piece of information, a language, or a person → зна́ти (+ accusative / що-clause). A learned skill 'know how to' → вмі́ти / умі́ти (+ infinitive). A situational possibility or permission → могти́ (+ infinitive). One test resolves all three: knowledge → знати, acquired skill → вміти, circumstance or permission → могти.
• Говорити vs Казати vs РозмовлятиB1 — The decision page for the speech verbs. говори́ти = speak/talk in general and speak a language (+ bare instrumental: говорю́ украї́нською). розмовля́ти = have a conversation, talk with someone (+ з + instrumental). каза́ти / сказа́ти = say/tell a specific utterance (+ dative + що-clause). розповіда́ти = recount a story. Two questions sort all four: ongoing activity vs single utterance, and monologue vs two-way conversation.
• Мати vs У мене є ('to have')A2 — The decision page for the two ways to say 'I have'. У ме́не є + nominative (У ме́не є маши́на) is the everyday, spoken default for concrete possession. ма́ти + accusative (Я ма́ю маши́ну) is more bookish/formal, expresses obligation (ма́ю йти), and is required in idioms (ма́ти ра́цію). Both negate identically with нема́є / не ма́ю + genitive — so the choice is register and idiom, not meaning.
• Bare Instrumental vs З + InstrumentalB1 — The decision page for English 'with'. The BARE instrumental (no preposition) marks the instrument or means BY which something is done: пишу́ ру́чкою, ї́ду авто́бусом, рі́жу ноже́м. З + instrumental marks accompaniment — being together with a companion or an added ingredient: йду з дру́гом, ка́ва з молоко́м. One question resolves the English 'with': is X the tool you use, or the company you keep?
• Simple Past vs Pluperfect vs Был-PerfectC1 — The decision page for past-time expression. The SIMPLE PAST plus aspect (чита́в imperfective vs прочита́в perfective) covers almost everything English splits into past, imperfect, perfect, and used-to. Reach for the PLUPERFECT (давномину́лий: був прочита́в) only to flag an explicit past-before-past or — its signature job — a cancelled / reversed action (був почав, та кинув). It is literary and western-leaning, and it is NOT the dead Russian был-perfect.
• За vs Через (time and reason)B1 — The decision page for за + accusative vs через + accusative. In time, за годину = 'within / by the end of an hour' (duration of the action), while через годину = 'an hour from now / after an hour elapses' (a delay before it starts). And 'because of' is через + accusative — за has no causal use. English 'in an hour' hides this split.
• Коли vs Якщо ('when' vs 'if')B1 — The decision page for ко́ли 'when' vs якщо́ 'if'. Ко́ли presupposes the event WILL happen and only its timing is at issue (Ко́ли при́йдеш, подзвони́). Якщо́ leaves the event uncertain — it MAY not happen (Якщо́ при́йдеш, подзвони́). Both take the FUTURE for future reference, so the choice is purely certainty: will (ко́ли) vs might (якщо́).
• Choosing the Right Perfectivizing PrefixB2 — Which 'empty' prefix turns a given imperfective into its perfective partner is lexically fixed and unpredictable: чита́ти→ПРОчита́ти, писа́ти→НАписа́ти, роби́ти→ЗРОби́ти, ї́сти→З’ї́сти, пи́ти→ВИ́пити, ба́чити→ПОба́чити, чу́ти→ПОчу́ти, буди́ти→РОЗбуди́ти. There is no rule — pick the wrong prefix and you get a DIFFERENT verb. The only strategy is to memorise each aspect pair as a unit.
• When a Verb Needs -ся (and When It Changes Meaning)B2 — Decision page on -ся. Some verbs ALWAYS take it (боя́тися, смія́тися, подо́батися, наді́ятися) — there is no -ся-less form. Some FLIP meaning with it (вчи́ти 'teach' / вчи́тися 'study'; знайти́ 'find' / знайти́ся 'turn up'). Some add -ся for the reflexive, reciprocal, passive or middle (ми́ти / ми́тися; буди́нок будує́ться). You must learn, for each verb, whether it takes -ся and what -ся does to it.

• Light-Verb Collocations (Брати, Робити, Мати, Давати)B2 — The fixed light-verb + noun collocations Ukrainian prefers, where the verb is bleached and the noun carries the meaning — бра́ти у́часть 'take part', звертати ува́гу 'pay attention', роби́ти ви́сновок 'draw a conclusion', ма́ти ра́цію 'be right', дава́ти зго́ду 'consent' — each with its governed case, and why choosing the English-equivalent verb fails.
• Common Idioms and Set PhrasesB2 — High-frequency Ukrainian idioms (фразеологі́зми) every speaker knows, with literal gloss and idiomatic meaning: байдики́ би́ти 'idle about', води́ти за но́са 'deceive', як кіт напла́кав 'very little', ні пу́ху ні пера́ 'good luck' (reply До бі́са!), пекти́ ра́ків 'blush', трима́ти язи́к за зуба́ми 'hold one's tongue', як ри́ба у воді́ 'in one's element', замилювати о́чі 'pull the wool over someone's eyes' — frozen phrases you cannot decode word-for-word.
• Fixed Comparisons and IntensifiersB2 — Stock Ukrainian similes (як + noun) and intensifying collocations: бі́лий як сніг 'white as snow', голо́дний як вовк 'hungry as a wolf', хи́трий як лис 'cunning as a fox', здоро́вий як бик 'strong as an ox', спить як уби́тий 'sleeps like a log', ллє як з відра́ 'pours down', схо́жі як дві кра́плі води́ 'like two peas in a pod'; plus adverbial intensifiers (страше́нно ра́дий, смерте́льно вто́млений, укра́й ва́жливо) and reduplication (давни́м-давно́, ти́хо-ти́хо) — fixed pairs where the noun and the intensifier are set by tradition.
• Conversational Formulae and FillersB1 — The fixed conversational chunks that lubricate Ukrainian speech: fillers and hesitation (ну, зна́єш, ти́пу, як би це сказа́ти, ко́ротше, вла́сне), reactions (Та ну?!, Спра́вді?, Невже́?, Бо́же мій!, Оце́ так!), agreement and turn-taking (Зго́ден, Авже́ж, Звича́йно, Ясна́ річ), and softeners (че́сно ка́жучи, до ре́чі, між і́ншим) — the formulaic chunks that make a learner sound fluent and engaged.

• Russian-Interference Errors (Суржик Awareness)B1 — The most pervasive error source for learners arriving via Russian is interference — Russian words, sounds, and patterns leaking into Ukrainian (суржик). This page raises awareness of the high-frequency interference points and gives the standard Ukrainian correction for each: restoring the vocative (Маріє!), keeping final voicing (хліб not хлеб), pronouncing г as /ɦ/, fixing dative government (дякую вам not дякую вас), and swapping the common russisms (отримати not получити, наступний not слідуючий, брати участь not приймати участь).
• Wrong Case After PrepositionsA2 — The two biggest preposition errors learners make are (1) picking the wrong case for motion vs location — в школу 'to school' (accusative) versus в школі 'at school' (locative) — and (2) importing Russian preposition-plus-case patterns: одружитися З нею not 'на ній', сміятися З нього not 'над ним', грати В футбол not bare 'футбол'. This page collects the high-frequency case-government errors after prepositions with the standard Ukrainian correction for each.
• Wrong Object Case (Verb Government)B1 — A cluster of everyday Ukrainian verbs do NOT take the accusative that English (and Russian) habits push you toward. 'Thank / help / phone / believe' take the DATIVE (дякую вам, допомагаю мамі); 'be interested in / manage / use' take the INSTRUMENTAL (цікавлюся історією, керую фірмою); 'fear / wish / need / study' take the GENITIVE (боюся темряви, потребую допомоги). This page collects the most common government errors, grouped by the case the verb actually demands, with the standard Ukrainian correction for each.
• Aspect MistakesB1 — The top aspect errors all come from one habit: reaching for the perfective when the situation needs the imperfective. Habits, ongoing processes, and durations need the imperfective (щодня читаю, читав весь день); phase verbs need an imperfective infinitive (почав читати, not почав прочитати); general prohibitions need the imperfective imperative (Не роби!, not Не зроби!); and the perfective has NO 'буду'-future — its future is the simple прочитаю. This page collects the recurring aspect errors with the standard Ukrainian correction and the aspect reason for each.
• Forgetting the Vocative and Address ErrorsA2 — Ukrainian REQUIRES the vocative case in direct address — calling someone by the nominative (Іван! Мама!) is wrong and sounds foreign or curt. The correct forms change the ending: Іване! Мамо! Друже! Олено! Formal address stacks name plus patronymic, both in the vocative (Тарасе Григоровичу!), the plural vocative equals the nominative (Друзі! Діти!), and дякувати takes the dative (дякую тобі). This page collects the common address errors with the standard Ukrainian correction for each.
• Inserting Articles and the CopulaA1 — The two opposite English-transfer traps every beginner falls into: (1) supplying a word for 'a/the' — Ukrainian has NO articles, so add nothing (книга is already 'a/the book'); and (2) supplying 'is/are' in plain predication — there is no present copula (Він студе́нт, not *Він є студе́нт). Yet є IS needed for existence and possession (У ме́не є…), so the rule is: no article ever, no copula in predication, but keep є for 'there is' and 'have'.
• Numeral Agreement MistakesB1 — The errors that give away a non-native — or a Russian-trained — speaker after numbers. The headline trap is два стола (Russian genitive singular) instead of the Ukrainian два столи́ (NOMINATIVE PLURAL) for 2/3/4; then forgetting that 5+ forces the genitive plural (п’ять столі́в), that compounds follow their LAST digit (два́дцять оди́н стіл, два́дцять п’ять столі́в), that 'years' is suppletive (оди́н рік, два ро́ки, п’ять ро́ків), and that an oblique numeral must decline (з двома́ друзя́ми).
• Wrong Preposition+Case (Russian Patterns)B1 — A cluster of everyday Ukrainian verbs take a DIFFERENT preposition+case from Russian, and importing the Russian frame is a systematic error: 'marry' is одружи́тися З + instrumental (not на), 'laugh at' is смія́тися З + genitive (not над), 'think about' is ду́мати ПРО + accusative (not о), 'miss' is сумува́ти ЗА + instrumental, 'phone' is телефонува́ти + DATIVE (no preposition). Plus the careful cases that ARE correct Ukrainian: хворі́ти НА + accusative, чека́ти НА + accusative, слу́хати + bare accusative.
• Gender and Agreement ErrorsA2 — The most common agreement mistakes — masculine nouns in -о, Ukrainian-specific genders like біль and степ, and past-tense verbs that must match the speaker's gender.
• Word-Choice Errors and False FriendsB1 — High-frequency lexical traps — неді́ля is 'Sunday' not 'week', рік is 'year' not 'river', час is 'time', and other words that betray learners who guess from Russian or English.
• Common Spelling ErrorsB1 — The four rules that prevent most Ukrainian spelling mistakes — the apostrophe (п’ять, м’ясо, об’єкт), и/і in loanwords (the дев’ятка), the з-/с- prefix, and the geminate -ння/-ття.
• Word Order and Particle ErrorsB2 — Structural mistakes English speakers make — the mandatory comma before що/щоб/який, the clitic position of б/би and ж/же, and why Ukrainian can never strand a preposition.

• Reported (Indirect) SpeechB1 — How to report what someone said — and the one rule English speakers must unlearn: Ukrainian does NOT backshift tenses. 'He said he would come' is Він сказа́в, що при́йде (the future is kept, not turned into 'would'); the embedded tense reflects the ORIGINAL utterance, not the reporting verb. Statements take що + comma; yes/no questions take чи ('whether'); wh-questions keep the question word; and commands/requests use щоб + the past form, never an infinitive.
• Conditional Sentences (Real and Unreal)B1 — Ukrainian splits 'if'-sentences into just two patterns where English has three or more. REAL conditions use якщо́ + the indicative (typically the FUTURE in BOTH clauses): Якщо́ бу́де дощ, ми залиши́мося вдо́ма. UNREAL/hypothetical conditions use якби́ + the past form, with би/б in BOTH clauses: Якби́ я був бага́тий, я б подорожува́в — and this single form covers BOTH 'if I were' (present-unreal) and 'if I had been' (past-unreal); context and aspect tell them apart. There is no separate 'would have'.
• Participial and Verbal-Adverb PhrasesB2 — The syntax of reduced clauses — and the strong Ukrainian preference to rephrase them. Passive-participle phrases modify a noun and put the agent in the INSTRUMENTAL (кни́га, напи́сана відо́мим а́втором). Verbal-adverb phrases compress a same-subject clause: прочита́вши листа́, він запла́кав ('having read…', perfective -вши = prior action) and йду́чи додо́му, я ду́мав про це ('walking home…', imperfective -ючи = simultaneous). Both are ALWAYS set off by commas, and the verbal adverb MUST share the main clause's subject — no dangling. Good Ukrainian rewrites active participles (чита́ючий) as який-clauses.
• Passive, Impersonal, and Agentless StyleB2 — Where English reaches for a be-passive ('the report was written', 'mistakes were made'), Ukrainian backgrounds or drops the agent through native routes: the invariant -но/-то impersonal (Робо́ту ви́конано 'the work has been done', object in the ACCUSATIVE, no agent — the idiomatic past passive); the -ся middle/passive for ongoing processes (Буди́нок буду́ється, Як це пи́шеться?); the agentless 3rd-plural (Ка́жуть, Закон ухвали́ли); and plain recasting to the active. A named agent goes in the INSTRUMENTAL (напи́саний а́втором), never a 'by'-phrase. The insight English speakers miss: an English agentless passive is rendered by -но/-то (Зако́н ухва́лено) or the 3rd-plural (Зако́н ухвали́ли), NOT by бути + participle — so 'the work has been done' is Робо́ту ви́конано, not *Робо́та є зро́блена.
• Expressing Probability, Obligation, and AdviceC1 — How Ukrainian grades modal nuance with ADVERBS and predicatives rather than modal verbs. PROBABILITY ladder: можли́во 'maybe' < ма́буть 'probably' < напе́вно 'almost certainly' < ймові́рно 'likely', plus здає́ться 'it seems' and the future-of-probability (Він уже́, ма́буть, удо́ма). OBLIGATION ladder: тре́ба (need) < слід/ва́рто (should/worth) < пови́нен (ought, agreeing) < му́сити (must) < зобов’я́заний (obliged). ADVICE: ва́рто, кра́ще, ра́джу, на твоє́му мі́сці я б… and the softeners ма́ло не / ледь не / ча́сом не. The insight English speakers miss: nuanced modality is a matter of choosing the right adverb/predicative + construction, and advice leans on ва́рто/кра́ще/ра́джу + the conditional (на твоє́му мі́сці я б).
• Nominalization: Verbal Nouns and Nominal StyleC1 — Formal and academic Ukrainian heavily nominalizes — turning verbs into verbal nouns in -ння / -ття (чита́ти → чита́ння, прибу́ти → прибуття́) and packing an action into a noun phrase with a genitive complement (підписа́ння уго́ди 'the signing of the agreement') instead of a clause; this page shows how the nouns are formed and stressed, how to rewrite clauses as nominalizations, and why good Ukrainian still avoids heavy noun-chains.
• The Limits of Free Word OrderC1 — Where Ukrainian word order is NOT free — refining the 'free order' picture. The major constituents (subject, object, verb) scramble for emphasis, but many elements are FIXED: prepositions always precede their noun (в шко́лі, never *шко́лі в), the negative не hugs the word it negates, attributive adjectives precede their noun by default (нова́ кни́га), the clitics б/би and же seek second position, numerals precede their noun, and the reflexive -ся is welded to its verb. New information gravitates to the end. So you can reorder S/V/O freely, but you cannot strand a preposition, split не from its target, or float a clitic.
• Aspect Under Negation and in QuestionsC1 — How aspect interacts with negation and questions — a subtle C1 area. Negating a PERFECTIVE denies a single completed result, often 'failed / didn't manage to' (Я не прочита́в книжку = I didn't finish the book). Negating an IMPERFECTIVE denies the activity at all (Я не чита́в цю книжку = I didn't read it / wasn't reading it). Prohibitions take the IMPERFECTIVE imperative (Не роби́ цьо́го! — never the perfective). And 'have you ever…?' experiential questions default to the imperfective (Ти бачив цей фільм?), because they ask about the experience-type, not a bounded event.
• Concessive Constructions (Хоч, Попри, Незважаючи)B2 — Ukrainian splits concession between a CLAUSE-introducing хоч/хоча́ 'although' (Хоч було́ пі́зно, він прийшо́в) and the NOUN-governing prepositions попри + accusative and незважа́ючи на + accusative 'despite' (попри все, незважа́ючи на дощ) — so 'although it rained' is хоча́ йшов дощ but 'despite the rain' is попри дощ; 'no matter what/how' uses хоч + a question word + би (хоч би що ста́лося).
• Result and Consequence Clauses (Так...що, Настільки)B2 — Ukrainian builds 'so X that Y' on the так/такий split: так + adjective/adverb + що (Він так втоми́вся, що засну́в) but такий + noun + що (Така́ спе́ка, що ва́жко ди́хати), with настільки…що 'to such a degree that' as the formal variant. The comma falls before що. Standalone consequence — 'therefore, as a result' — uses то́му, о́тже, так що, and the formal внаслідок цьо́го; 'too X to Y' is занадто + adjective + щоб + infinitive.
• Focus Constructions with Саме, Лише, НавітьC1 — Focus-sensitive particles attach to the constituent they highlight, and their PLACEMENT changes meaning: ті́льки я vs ті́льки це vs ті́льки знаю. Саме 'exactly/precisely' is the precise-focus marker that stands in for an English cleft (саме він, саме тому́); наві́ть 'even' marks the least-expected member; ті́льки/лише́ 'only' restricts; аж 'as much as' scales a surprising quantity; тако́ж/теж 'also' and хоч би 'at least' add and minimise. The particle scopes over whatever immediately follows it.
• Iterative and Habitual-Past ConstructionsC1 — Ukrainian's everyday 'used to' is just the plain IMPERFECTIVE past (Ра́ніше я бага́то чита́в, Я щодня́ ходи́в туди́) — there is no dedicated tense. For vivid habitual reminiscence it adds the бува́ло frame (Бува́ло, сиди́мо до ра́нку), a narrative device that combines with the present or the past and has no single English word. Iterative secondary imperfectives in -ува-/-ова- mark inherently repeated action, and frequency adverbs (ча́сто, щодня́, і́нколи, не раз) anchor the habit.
• Expressing Necessity and Obligation in DepthC1 — The full advanced range of necessity and obligation. Impersonal predicatives (тре́ба, потрі́бно, слід, ва́рто, необхі́дно, мо́жна + DATIVE + infinitive: Мені́ тре́ба йти); the agreeing scale пови́нен/пови́нна/пови́нні and the verb му́сити (strong compulsion); бу́ти зобов’я́заним (formal/legal); ма́ти + infinitive for scheduled 'be to'; the bare infinitive of fate/impossibility (Тут не проїхати); the -но/-то necessity reading; and the sharp negation triple не тре́ба / не мо́жна / не му́сиш. The insight: advanced necessity is a register-and-strength cline deployed through several distinct grammatical machines.
• Building Cohesive ParagraphsC1 — How Ukrainian welds sentences into a flowing paragraph rather than a list of correct-but-disconnected statements. Reference chains (pronouns, the demonstratives цей/той, свій, repetition vs. synonymy), the obligatory н-pronoun after prepositions (у нього, з нею), the це/те resumptive that points back at a whole previous idea (Він запізнився. Це всіх засмутило), connective adverbs and their clause-edge placement (отже, однак, до того ж, крім того, водночас, відтак), aspect consistency in narration (a perfective event-chain against an imperfective backdrop), ellipsis to dodge repetition, and theme-rheme progression where each sentence's new information becomes the next sentence's topic. The insight English speakers miss: cohesion in Ukrainian is carried by це-resumption, aspect harmony, and connectors parked at clause boundaries — produce these and your paragraphs flow.
• Archaic and Literary Grammatical FormsC2 — The grammatical fossils a master reader of the Ukrainian canon must recognize — the old dual (дві руці́), the poetic -ть infinitive, archaic vocative and case endings, and the pluperfect — all labelled, none of them modern neutral prose.
• Correlative Constructions (Чим...Тим, Хто...Той)B2 — Ukrainian links two clauses with matched correlative markers: чим…тим with two comparatives for 'the more…the more' (Чим бі́льше чита́єш, тим бі́льше зна́єш), хто…той / що…те for headless relatives ('whoever…they'), and the family де…там, коли́…тоді, яки́й…таки́й, скі́льки…сті́льки, як…так. Each pair has a fixed frame, a mandatory comma between the clauses, and a logic English handles with single connectors — so commanding the correlatives is what lets you build proverbs, proportions, and tight arguments the native way.
• Aspect Mastery: The Hardest CasesC1 — The residual hard aspect choices for advanced learners. The 'annulled-result' imperfective encodes that a completed action has since been REVERSED (Я відчиня́в вікно́ = I opened the window, and it may be shut again now) against the perfective's still-holding result (Я відчини́в вікно́ = it's open now). The same reversal underlies the two-way-action verbs of motion (Він прихо́див = he came and left vs Він прийшо́в = he came and is here). Add the general-factual imperfective for unframed completed events (Хто будува́в цей міст? — focus on the agent), the negated perfective 'failed to', and the imperative aspect choice — and you have the places aspect carries meaning English needs whole phrases to express.
• Advanced Information PackagingC1 — The C1 devices for reordering a sentence to control what is topic and what is focus. Left-dislocation hangs a referent at the front and resumes it with a pronoun (Цей фільм — я його́ вже ба́чив). The те, що… frame nominalizes a whole clause so it can serve as subject or object (Мене́ дивує те, що ти мовчи́ш). Presentational order introduces brand-new referents verb-first (Жив собі́ дід; Прийшла́ якось до нас жі́нка). End-focus keeps the newsworthy element last, and the dash marks a thematic break. None of these map cleanly onto English word order, so commanding them is what makes advanced Ukrainian read as composed rather than translated.
• Embedded Questions and Що/Чи ClausesB2 — Folding a statement or question into a bigger sentence after a verb of thinking or saying: statements take що 'that' (never dropped, comma obligatory: Він сказа́в, що при́йде); embedded yes/no questions take чи 'whether' (NOT якщо́, which is conditional 'if': Я не зна́ю, чи він при́йде); embedded wh-questions keep the question word plus statement order (Спита́й, де він). The rule English speakers must unlearn: Ukrainian does NOT backshift the tense — the embedded verb keeps the ORIGINAL tense (Він сказа́в, що при́йде = 'he said he WOULD come', the future kept), and a comma always precedes що/чи.

• Coordinating Conjunctions (І/Й, А, Але, Та)A1 — Joining equals: і/й 'and' (й after a vowel for euphony), та 'and' (bookish), and the three-way split English collapses — і/й pure addition, а 'and/but' for CONTRAST without conflict (Я тут, а він там; не…, а…), and але́ 'but' for genuine opposition (Хо́чу, але́ не мо́жу). Also про́те/одна́к 'however', або́/чи 'or', ні…ні 'neither…nor' (with double negation). The hardest pair is а vs але́. Comma rules: comma before а and але́, but not before a single connecting і.
• Subordinating Conjunctions: Time and CauseA2 — The subordinators that attach a when-clause or a why-clause, each with an OBLIGATORY comma before it. Time: коли́ 'when' (future after коли́ for future reference — Коли́ закі́нчу, відпочи́ну, both future!), по́ки/до́ки 'while/until', як ті́льки 'as soon as', пі́сля то́го як 'after', перш ніж / пе́ред тим як 'before', відто́ді як 'since'. Cause: бо 'because' (everyday, never starts a sentence), тому́ що (slightly more formal), оскі́льки 'since', че́рез те що, завдяки́ тому́ що 'thanks to'; тому́ alone = 'therefore'.
• Subordinating Conjunctions: Condition, Purpose, ConcessionB1 — Three families of subordinators that English collapses or marks only with verb forms. CONDITION: якщо́ 'if' for real/likely conditions (with the FUTURE — Якщо́ бу́де дощ, залиши́мося вдо́ма) versus якби́ 'if' for hypotheticals (with PAST + би/б — Якби́ був дощ, ми б залиши́лися). PURPOSE: щоб 'so that / in order to', + infinitive for the same subject, + past form for a different subject; also для то́го щоб, аби́. CONCESSION: хоч/хоча́ 'although', незважа́ючи на те що 'despite', дарма́ що, хай/нехай 'even if'. Comma before the subordinator.
• Correlative and Paired ConjunctionsB1 — Paired conjunctions that bracket two elements and require BOTH halves: і…і 'both…and', ні…ні 'neither…nor' (with obligatory verb negation — double negation!), або́…або́ / чи…чи 'either…or', не ті́льки…а й / не лише́…але́ й 'not only…but also' (fixed frame, а й not 'але́ тако́ж'), то…то 'now…now', як…так і 'both…and / as…so', and чим…тим 'the…the' (Чим бі́льше, тим кра́ще). Comma falls between the halves; ні…ні carries the mandatory не on the verb.
• Comparative Conjunctions (Як, Ніж, Наче, Ніби)B1 — How Ukrainian links comparisons and resemblances. Як 'as / like' for factual likeness (бі́лий як сніг 'white as snow', роби́, як я 'do as I do'); ніж 'than' after comparatives (ви́щий, ніж я 'taller than me'), with the від + genitive and за + accusative alternatives; на́че / нена́че / мов / немо́в 'as if, like' for hypothetical resemblance (на́че уві сні 'as if in a dream'); ні́би / ні́бито 'as though / supposedly' adding doubt or hearsay. The comma rules for comparative phrases — and the key insight that 'as if' has degrees of reality, sliding from factual як through hypothetical на́че to doubtful ні́би.

• Ukraine and the Ukrainian LanguageA2 — Orienting facts plus the case forms you need to talk about the country and its language. Україна 'Ukraine' with в Украї́ні (locative, the standard statehood-affirming form), до Украї́ни and з Украї́ни for motion; the gendered nationality украї́нець / украї́нка; the language named with the instrumental — говори́ти украї́нською 'to speak Ukrainian' — and as the держа́вна мо́ва 'state language'; the capital Ки́їв and the major cities with their Ukrainian-based romanizations (Kyiv, Lviv, Kharkiv, Odesa, Dnipro); the гри́вня currency; basic facts (East Slavic, Cyrillic, tens of millions of speakers); and the large global diaspora. The insight: even talking ABOUT Ukraine requires the case forms (в Украї́ні, украї́нською) and the current spellings.
• The Ukrainian Diaspora and Heritage SpeakersB2 — A factual guide to the global Ukrainian-speaking communities and the distinctive shape of diaspora / heritage Ukrainian. The major communities — Canada (~1.3M, the long-established Prairie community), the USA, Brazil and Argentina, Poland and other EU states (large post-2014/2022 communities) — and the linguistic features that older diaspora Ukrainian preserves: archaic and Galician vocabulary, pre-1933 spelling habits, robust ґ usage, fewer Russianisms but more English / Portuguese / Polish loanwords and code-switching (карка for 'car', бачдей for 'birthday'). The key distinction for a heritage learner: родинна / спадко́ва мо́ва ('family / heritage language') may be fluent yet a dated or regional variety, diverging from the modern Kyiv standard the guide teaches — knowing the difference, respectfully, is the point.
• Ukrainian as a World LanguageB2 — An informational orientation: where Ukrainian sits among the world's languages. One of the most-spoken Slavic languages — the state language of Ukraine, with roughly 40 million speakers (about 32 million native plus several million second-language) and a large worldwide diaspora (Canada, the USA, Brazil and Argentina, Poland, and post-2022 across Europe). Its place in the East Slavic group alongside Belarusian and Russian, yet with closer lexical ties to West Slavic Polish than to Russian; high mutual intelligibility with Belarusian, partial and asymmetric with Russian. Written in its own Cyrillic alphabet, with signature features: the living vocative, the synthetic future (робитиму), the і/и/ї vowel-letter system, and the г/ґ distinction. The insight English speakers miss: Ukrainian is a major Slavic language with a millennium-long literary tradition and distinctive grammar — NOT a 'dialect of Russian', a harmful myth — so learners join a large, vibrant community with deep resources.

• Ukrainian Has No ArticlesA1 — Ukrainian has no articles at all — no 'a', no 'an', no 'the'. A bare кни́га means 'a book', 'the book', or just 'book' depending entirely on context. Definiteness is carried not by a word but by WORD ORDER (new information drifts to the end: На столі́ кни́га 'there's a book on the table' vs Кни́га на столі́ 'the book is on the table'), by demonstratives (цей/той) when you truly need 'this/that', and by оди́н for 'a certain'. The fix for English speakers is to drop the article instinct entirely — don't reach for a word to translate 'a' or 'the'.
• Expressing 'the' and 'a' Without ArticlesA2 — A practical toolkit for conveying English article distinctions in article-less Ukrainian. DEFINITE ('the'): put the known noun FIRST (Маши́на стої́ть бі́ля до́му 'the car is by the house') or use a demonstrative цей/той. INDEFINITE ('a'): put the new noun LATER (Бі́ля до́му стої́ть маши́на 'there's a car by the house'), use оди́н for 'a (certain specific)', or якийсь for 'some (vague)'. GENERIC: bare noun (Соба́ка — друг люди́ни). The workhorse is WORD ORDER + topic position, not a word — most of the time you add nothing.
• Один as 'a / a certain / one'B1 — Beyond the numeral 'one', оди́н·одна́·одне́·одні́ has a busy determiner life: indefinite-specific 'a certain' in storytelling (Жив собі́ оди́н коро́ль 'there once lived a king'), 'alone / only' (Я живу́ оди́н), the оди́н... і́нший 'one... the other' and одні́... і́нші 'some... others' contrast, and the reciprocal 'each other' — оди́н о́дного, gender-matched to одна́ о́дну, одне́ о́дного (Вони́ допомага́ють одне́ о́дному). Also той са́мий 'the same one' vs одна́ковий 'identical/alike'. It agrees in gender and number and declines.

• Connectors of Addition and SequenceB1 — Discourse connectors that add and sequence ideas in Ukrainian writing and speech: addition (тако́ж / теж 'also', крім то́го 'besides', до то́го ж 'moreover', бі́льше то́го 'what's more', не ті́льки… а й 'not only… but also') and sequence (по-пе́рше / по-дру́ге / по-тре́тє 'firstly/secondly/thirdly', споча́тку 'at first', по́тім / да́лі 'then/next', наре́шті / зре́штою 'finally', відта́к, вре́шті-решт) — the fixed chunks that structure a coherent paragraph, with written vs spoken register and the commas they need.
• Connectors of Contrast and ConcessionB1 — The Ukrainian toolkit for marking that two ideas clash: contrast connectors (одна́к / проте́ 'however', натомі́сть 'instead', з одного́ бо́ку… з і́ншого бо́ку 'on one hand… on the other', а 'whereas') and concession (все ж / все-та́ки 'still', тим не ме́нш 'nonetheless', незважа́ючи на це 'despite this', хоча́ 'although'), plus the counter-expectation pair наспра́вді 'actually' and навпаки́ 'on the contrary' — and the key insight that written Ukrainian keeps the inter-sentential 'however' (одна́к, проте́) distinct from the clause-internal 'but' (але́, а).
• Connectors of Cause, Result, and PurposeB1 — How Ukrainian links reasons to outcomes: cause connectors (тому́ що / оскі́льки 'because/since', че́рез це 'because of this', and the distinctly Ukrainian justifying адже́ 'after all/since'), result connectors (тому́ 'that's why', о́тже 'thus', таки́м чи́ном 'in this way', в результа́ті 'as a result', тож 'so'), and purpose/conclusion markers (для цьо́го 'for this', з ціє́ю мето́ю 'with this aim', підсумо́вуючи 'to sum up', одни́м сло́вом 'in a word') — with the key contrast that тому́ means result ('therefore') while тому́ що means cause ('because').
• Stance and Opinion MarkersB1 — The comma-set parentheticals that let a Ukrainian speaker frame a proposition: opinion (на мою́ ду́мку / по-мо́єму 'in my opinion', я вважа́ю 'I consider', як на ме́не 'as for me'), certainty (безпере́чно 'undoubtedly', очеви́дно 'obviously', напе́вно 'surely'), hedging (ма́буть 'probably', мо́жливо 'perhaps', зда́ється 'it seems', ні́би / ні́бито 'supposedly'), evaluation (на жаль 'unfortunately', на ща́стя 'fortunately', чесно ка́жучи 'frankly'), and the reported-speech particle мовля́в — explaining that Ukrainian carries attitude through these comma-set adverbials, not through tone alone.
• Managing Topics and TurnsB2 — The fixed phrasal markers that organize a longer stretch of Ukrainian discourse: introducing a topic (щодо́ / стосо́вно + genitive 'as for / regarding', що ж до… 'as far as … is concerned'), shifting and digressing (до ре́чі / між і́ншим 'by the way', до сло́ва 'speaking of', а втім 'though'), returning (поверта́ючись до… 'returning to', о́тже), reformulating (тобто́ 'that is', іна́кше ка́жучи 'in other words', точні́ше 'more precisely', вла́сне ка́жучи 'as a matter of fact'), and closing (коро́тше ка́жучи 'in short', одни́м сло́вом 'in a word', підсумо́вуючи 'to sum up', зага́лом 'all in all') — with the key insight that щодо́ / стосо́вно govern the genitive.
• Clarifying and ReformulatingB2 — The fixed connectors Ukrainian uses to restate, sharpen, and illustrate a point. Reformulation: то́бто 'that is / i.e.' (the everyday workhorse), іна́кше ка́жучи 'in other words', точні́ше 'more precisely' (the self-correction marker), а са́ме 'namely'. Exemplifying: напри́клад 'for example', зокре́ма 'in particular', як-о́т 'such as', ска́жімо 'let's say'. Approximating: так би мо́вити 'so to speak'. The insight English speakers miss is that precise spoken and written Ukrainian leans on these fixed connectors — with то́бто doing the heavy lifting of English 'I mean / that is' — rather than just restarting the sentence.
• Connectors for Narration and StorytellingB2 — The discourse furniture of Ukrainian stories and anecdotes: openers (Одного́ ра́зу, Жив собі́), sequencers (споча́тку, по́тім / тоді́, да́лі, пі́сля цьо́го, наре́шті), suddenness markers (ра́птом, аж тут, та й), and how they glue together a chain of perfective events.

• Interjections and Emotional ExclamationsA2 — The emotional interjections (ви́гуки) of everyday Ukrainian, learned as fixed emotive cries with their own spellings and uses. Surprise and amazement: Ого́! / О́вва! 'wow', Оце́ так!, Невже́?, Бо́же (мій)! 'oh my God'. Pain and dismay: Ой! 'ouch/oh', Ай!, Ли́шенько! / Ой ли́шенько! 'oh dear', Го́ре мені́!. Joy and approval: Ура́! 'hooray', Бра́во!, Чудо́во!. Disgust and annoyance: Тьху! / Фу! 'ugh', Та ну тебе́! 'oh come on'. Calling and attention: Гей! / Аго́в! 'hey'. The all-purpose emotive particle Ой covers surprise, pain, dismay, and realisation (Ой, забу́в! 'oh, I forgot!', Ой, боли́ть! 'ow, it hurts!'); Ли́шенько! is a characteristically Ukrainian 'oh dear'; Бо́же (мій)! is the everyday 'oh (my) God'. Plus sound words (бах, гуп, дзень) and the comma after an interjection.
• Exclamative Sentences (Який! Як! Що за!)B1 — The patterns Ukrainian uses to exclaim about intensity, quality, and quantity. Який / Яка́ / Яке́ / Які́ + noun (or noun-phrase) for 'what (a)…!' — the word agrees in gender and number (Яки́й день! / Яка́ ніч! / Яке́ ди́во! / Які́ лю́ди!). Як + adjective or adverb for 'how…!' (Як шви́дко лети́ть час! 'how fast time flies', Як га́рно!) — invariant. Що за + nominative for a more colloquial 'what a…!' (Що за пита́ння! 'what a question!'). Скі́льки + genitive for 'so much / how many…!' (Скі́льки люде́й! 'what a lot of people!'). Plus Таки́й + adjective ('so…!'). The key split English speakers miss: 'what a…!' is agreeing який + noun, while 'how…!' before an adjective/adverb is invariant як — and these same words are interrogatives, so only intonation and the exclamation mark tell exclamation from question.

• Greetings and FarewellsA1 — Everyday Ukrainian hellos and goodbyes with register and time-of-day. Greetings: Приві́т! (informal 'hi'), Добри́день! / До́брий день! 'good day', До́брого ра́нку! 'good morning', До́брий ве́чір! / Добри́вечір! 'good evening', Віта́ю! 'greetings', and the folksy Здоро́в був! / Здоро́ві були́!. Farewells: До поба́чення! 'goodbye' (lit. 'until our seeing'), Бува́й! / Бува́йте! (informal 'bye'), До зу́стрічі! 'see you', На добра́ніч! 'good night', Щасли́во! and Усьо́го найкра́щого! 'all the best'. The insight English speakers miss: Ukrainian often greets in the GENITIVE (До́брого ра́нку! — a wish 'of a good morning'), and farewells like До поба́чення literally mean 'until (our) seeing' (до + genitive); the choice Приві́т/Бува́й (informal) vs Добри́день/До поба́чення (neutral-formal) tracks the ти/ви relationship.
• Politeness Formulas (Please, Thank You, Sorry)A1 — The core politeness kit of Ukrainian. 'Please / you're welcome': будь ла́ска, прошу́. 'Thank you': Дя́кую! / Вели́ке дя́кую! / Щи́ро дя́кую! — taking the DATIVE (дя́кую тобі́/вам) and за + accusative (дя́кую за допомо́гу). 'You're welcome': Будь ла́ска / Прошу́ / Нема́ за що / Нема́є за що. 'Sorry / excuse me': Ви́бачте! / Перепро́шую! / Проба́чте! / Дару́йте!; Перепро́шую also flags down attention. Polite requests: Чи не могли́ б ви + infinitive. The insight English speakers miss: дя́кувати governs the DATIVE (дя́кую вам, not *дя́кую вас — a constant error), 'please' and 'you're welcome' are BOTH прошу́/будь ла́ска, and 'don't mention it' is Нема́(є) за що (lit. 'there's nothing for').
• Introductions and Getting AcquaintedA1 — Introducing yourself and others in Ukrainian. 'My name is': Мене́ зва́ти / Мене́ звуть Іва́н (accusative мене́ + the verb 'to call'), or Моє́ ім’я́ — Іва́н. Asking: Як вас / тебе́ зва́ти?, Як ва́ше ім’я́?. 'Nice to meet you': Ду́же приє́мно! / Приє́мно познайо́митися!. 'This is…': Це мій друг Оле́г; Знайо́мтеся, це… 'meet…'; Дозво́льте відрекомендува́тися. Origin: Я з Украї́ни (з + genitive), Я живу́ в Ки́єві. Profession: Я працю́ю вчи́телем (INSTRUMENTAL!) or Я студе́нт. The insight English speakers miss: 'my name is' is Мене́ зва́ти/звуть… — literally 'me they-call…', with мене́ in the ACCUSATIVE and no possessive; origin uses з + genitive (Я з Кана́ди), and profession uses the INSTRUMENTAL with працюва́ти (працю́ю лі́карем) or a bare nominative (Я лі́кар).
• Asking for and Giving DirectionsA2 — How to ask the way and follow it in Ukrainian. Ask with Як пройти́ до…? 'how do I get to…?' (до + genitive), Де знахо́диться…? 'where is…?', Це дале́ко? 'is it far?', Ви́бачте, скажі́ть, будь ла́ска… 'excuse me, please tell me…'. Direct with the -о adverbs пря́мо 'straight', право́руч/напра́во 'right', ліво́руч/налі́во 'left', наза́д 'back', and prepositional phrases на ро́зі 'on the corner', навпро́ти 'opposite', біля 'near', че́рез доро́гу 'across the street' (че́рез + accusative). 'Turn right' is the imperative поверні́ть/зверні́ть право́руч. The insight English speakers miss: 'how to get to X' is Як пройти́ до + GENITIVE, and the case-governed prepositions (до + gen, че́рез + acc, на + loc) carry the spatial meaning, not the verb.
• Shopping and Restaurant PhrasesA2 — Transactional Ukrainian for shops, markets, cafés and restaurants. Buy with Скі́льки це ко́штує? 'how much is this?', Да́йте, будь ла́ска… + ACCUSATIVE 'give me…', Я візьму́… 'I'll take…', Чи є у вас…? 'do you have…?', Мо́жна примі́ряти? 'can I try it on?'. Order with Я хоті́в би замо́вити… 'I'd like to order', Ме́ню, будь ла́ска, Що ви пора́дите? 'what do you recommend?', Раху́нок, будь ла́ска 'the bill please', Сма́чного! 'enjoy your meal'. Quantities take the GENITIVE: кілогра́м я́блук, пля́шка води́, ча́шку ка́ви. The insight English speakers miss: the requested item is ACCUSATIVE (Да́йте ка́ву), but quantities are GENITIVE (both container and contents inflect), and 'do you have?' is Чи є у вас + nominative.
• Talking About Time and DatesA2 — Everyday Ukrainian time and date talk. Котра́ годи́на? 'what time?' (see telling-time), Яке́ сього́дні число́? 'what's the date?' answered with ordinal + month-in-GENITIVE (Сього́дні п’я́те тра́вня), and 'on' a date drops to bare genitive (народи́вся пе́ршого сі́чня). Weekdays (понеді́лок…неді́ля) and months (сі́чень…гру́день) are LOWERCASE; 'on Monday' is у понеді́лок (у + accusative) but recurring 'on Mondays' is по понеді́лках (по + locative). Time-ago/in: ти́ждень тому 'a week ago', че́рез ти́ждень 'in a week'. Frequency: щодня́, дві́чі на ти́ждень. The insight English speakers miss: each time concept selects a specific case/preposition — the date is an ordinal + genitive month, 'on Monday' is у + accusative, recurring is по + locative.
• Weather and Small TalkB1 — Ukrainian weather talk and conversational filler — and why it's grammatically impersonal. 'It's raining' is Іде́ дощ (lit. 'rain goes', дощ the subject) or Дощи́ть; 'it's cold' is Хо́лодно (a predicative adverb with no 'it'). Sunny/cloudy/windy: Со́нячно / Хма́рно / Ві́тряно; Те́пло / Спе́котно / Моро́зно; temperature: Скі́льки гра́дусів? / +10 гра́дусів. Small talk: Як спра́ви? / Як ся ма́єте? 'how are you?', Що ново́го? 'what's new?', answered with adverbs Все до́бре / Непога́но / Поти́хеньку. Filler: не зважа́йте 'never mind'. The insight English speakers miss: weather is IMPERSONAL — no dummy 'it' — and 'how are you?' is answered with adverbs (до́бре, непога́но), so small talk runs on subjectless, predicative-adverb patterns.
• Expressing Feelings and OpinionsB1 — Talking about how you feel and what you think in Ukrainian — and why so much of it is dative, not 'I am + adjective'. Many feelings are DATIVE impersonals: Мені́ су́мно 'I'm sad', Мені́ стра́шно 'I'm scared', Мені́ при́кро 'I'm sorry/upset'. Liking is dative-subject подо́батися: Мені́ подо́бається фільм 'I like the film' (the film is the subject). Other feelings use -ся verbs (Я хвилю́юся 'I'm worried') or adjectives (Я ра́дий/рада 'I'm glad'). Opinions: Я ду́маю/вважа́ю, що… 'I think that', На мою́ ду́мку / По-мо́єму 'in my opinion', Я (не) зго́ден/зго́дна, Ма́єш ра́цію 'you're right'. The insight English speakers miss: emotion is a DATIVE experiencer (Мені́ + predicative), liking flips the subject (Мені́ подо́бається + nominative), and opinions ride що-clauses.
• Talking About Family and RelationshipsA2 — Ukrainian family vocabulary with the grammar around it: possession with У мене є + nominative, the reflexive possessive свій, the gendered split of 'married' (одружений vs заміжня), age comparatives with старший/молодший за, and the apostrophe in сім’я.
• Work, Study, and Daily ActivitiesA2 — The grammar of talking about work and study in Ukrainian: profession in the instrumental after працювати (працюю вчителем) vs the nominative with omitted copula (Я студент), вчитися в + locative vs вивчати + accusative, на роботі (на, not в), and working hours with з…до + genitive.
• Using Numbers in Real SituationsA2 — Ukrainian numbers in everyday life: phone numbers read in groups, prices with the genitive plural (сто двадцять гривень), age with the dative + suppletive рік/роки/років (Мені двадцять один рік), shopping quantities, addresses with bare cardinals (будинок п’ять), and percentages.
• Agreeing, Disagreeing, and PersuadingB1 — The language of agreement and argument in Ukrainian. Agreeing: Я зго́ден/зго́дна 'I agree' (a GENDERED short adjective), Ма́єш ра́цію 'you're right' (the fixed idiom мати рацію, NOT a literal *ти правий), Авже́ж/Зви́чайно 'of course', Са́ме так 'exactly', Цілко́м зго́ден 'completely agree'. Disagreeing: Не зго́ден, Я так не вважа́ю 'I don't think so', Навпаки́ 'on the contrary', Це не зо́всім так 'that's not quite right'. Persuading: Повір мені́, Я переко́наний, що…. Softening disagreement: Можли́во, але́…, З одного бо́ку…. The insight English speakers miss: agreement runs on fixed phrases (мати рацію, саме так) and the gendered зго́ден/зго́дна, while persuasion uses переко́наний + що.
• Emergencies and Asking for HelpA2 — The urgent language you hope never to need but must know cold. Calls for help: Допоможі́ть! 'help!', Ряту́йте! 'save me!', Ви́кличте швидку́/полі́цію! 'call an ambulance/police!'. Reporting trouble: Мені́ пога́но 'I feel ill' (dative-experiencer), Я загуби́вся/загуби́лася 'I'm lost', Мене́ пограбува́ли 'I've been robbed', Тут поже́жа! 'there's a fire here!'. Asking: Де найбли́жча ліка́рня?, Ви мо́жете мені́ допомогти́?. Emergency numbers 101/102/103. The grammar even a crisis obeys: допомага́ти governs the DATIVE (Допоможі́ть мені́, not *мене́), emergency commands are perfective ви-form imperatives (Ви́кличте! Допоможі́ть!), and 'I feel ill' is the impersonal dative Мені́ пога́но.
• Phone, Texting, and Online CommunicationB1 — How to call, text, and chat online in Ukrainian — and the one rule that ties it all together: 'call/write/message someone' all take the DATIVE recipient. Phone: телефонува́ти / дзвони́ти + DATIVE (Я тобі́ подзвоню́ 'I'll call you'), Алло́, Хто це?, Передзвоню́ 'I'll call back', Не чу́ти 'can't hear'. Online: писа́ти / написа́ти + DATIVE (напиши́ мені́), надсила́ти / надісла́ти повідо́млення 'send a message', електро́нна по́шта / іме́йл, посила́ння 'link', заванта́жити 'download', зайти́ в інтерне́т. Texting register (shortened, informal). The insight English speakers miss: дзвони́ти, писа́ти, and надсила́ти all govern the DATIVE recipient (подзвони́ мені́, напиши́ йому́, надішли́ їй) — the same dative-government pattern as дя́кувати and допомага́ти.
• Days, Months, and SeasonsA1 — The Ukrainian calendar and the grammar baked into it. Weekdays (понеді́лок, вівто́рок, середа́, четве́р, п’я́тниця, субо́та, неді́ля = SUNDAY, not 'week'!) and months (сі́чень, лю́тий, бе́резень, кві́тень, тра́вень, че́рвень, ли́пень, се́рпень, ве́ресень, жо́втень, листопа́д, гру́день) are all LOWERCASE, and the month names are native nature-words (листопа́д 'leaf-fall' = November). 'On Monday' is у/в + accusative (у понеді́лок); recurring 'on Mondays' is по + dative/locative plural (по понеді́лках); 'in January' is у + locative (у сі́чні). The four seasons — весна́, лі́то, о́сінь, зима́ — have dedicated adverbs навесні́, влі́тку, восени́, взи́мку.
• The Body and HealthA2 — Body parts (голова́, рука́/ру́ки, нога́/но́ги, о́ко/о́чі, ву́хо/ву́ха, ніс, рот, зуб/зу́би, спи́на, живі́т, се́рце) and how to talk about feeling unwell. The key construction English speakers miss: 'my X hurts' is У ме́не боли́ть X, where the body part is the NOMINATIVE subject of боли́ть and the person sits in у + genitive — literally 'at-me hurts head'. Plus the everyday health words — почува́тися 'to feel', температу́ра, засту́да, грип, Як ви себе́ почува́єте? — and two old dual plurals that break the rules: о́ко → о́чі (gen оче́й) and ву́хо → ву́ха.
• Saying Numbers 0–100 AloudA1 — A practical reading-and-pronunciation drill for the numbers 0–100. The units нуль, оди́н–де́сять; the fused -на́дцять teens (одина́дцять, двана́дцять, чотирна́дцять… — all stressed on -на́-); the tens (два́дцять, три́дцять, со́рок, п’ятдеся́т, шістдеся́т, сімдеся́т, вісімдеся́т, дев’яно́сто, сто), where 50–80 are final-stressed -деся́т compounds; and the compounds (два́дцять оди́н, сімдеся́т ві́сім). The orthography is unavoidable: п’ять, шість, де́в’ять, ві́сім carry mandatory apostrophes and soft signs, and со́рок (40) and дев’яно́сто (90) are irregular.
• Describing Things: Colours and QualitiesA1 — Putting descriptive adjectives to work in real sentences. Колі́р 'colour'; the question Яко́го ко́льору…? 'what colour is…?' — built on the GENITIVE (literally 'of-what colour'); and full adjective agreement in use (черво́на маши́на, си́нє не́бо, вели́кий буди́нок). Describing people (висо́ка дівчи́на, га́рний хло́пець) and things (смачна́ ка́ва, нова́ кни́га), and the це + adjective frame (Це га́рно). Every descriptor must agree with its noun in gender, number, and case — where English uses an invariant 'what colour' and invariant adjectives, Ukrainian changes the ending every time.
• Likes, Dislikes, and PreferencesA2 — How to say what you like, love, and prefer in Ukrainian — and why 'I like X' splits into two structures: люби́ти + accusative (you are the subject) and подо́батися + dative experiencer (the liked thing is the subject). Plus preferences (волі́ти, надава́ти перева́гу, кра́ще би), intensity (обожнюю, терпі́ти не мо́жу), and the люби́ти / подо́батися / коха́ти distinction English collapses into one verb.
• Classroom and Learning PhrasesA1 — The phrases you need to survive a Ukrainian lesson — Як це сказа́ти украї́нською? 'how do you say this in Ukrainian?', Що означа́є…? 'what does it mean?', Повторі́ть, будь ла́ска 'please repeat', Я не розумі́ю, Як це пи́шеться? — and the grammar hiding in them: 'in Ukrainian' is the bare INSTRUMENTAL украї́нською, 'how is it spelled?' uses the -ся passive, and these are the single most useful phrases a beginner can learn.
• At Home and Daily LifeA2 — Rooms, furniture, and the daily routine in Ukrainian — and the grammar they trip: 'in the kitchen' is на ку́хні (на, not в!), an idiosyncratic на-location, while most rooms take у/в (у віта́льні, у спа́льні); the morning-to-evening routine chains reflexive -ся verbs (прокида́юся, вмива́юся, одяга́юся); and clock times use о + locative. The everyday vocabulary that quietly drills the в/на choice and the reflexives.
• Yes, No, and Short AnswersA1 — How Ukrainian answers questions. так 'yes' and ні 'no', but above all the ECHO-ANSWER — repeating the verb instead of so (Прийшо́в? — Прийшо́в 'Did he come? — He did', Бу́деш ка́ву? — Бу́ду 'Will you have coffee? — I will'). The negative answer Ні, не…, the soft contradiction Та ні 'well, no', and the quick agreers Зви́чайно / Аякже́ / Можли́во / Не зна́ю / ага́, угу́. The trap English speakers must rewire: answering a NEGATIVE question keys to the FACT, not the question's polarity — Ти не вто́мився? — Ні confirms 'no, I'm not tired', the opposite of how English 'no' can land. So short answers lean on the echoed verb plus the так/ні system.
• The Most Useful QuestionsA1 — A survival phrasebook of the highest-frequency Ukrainian question frames, with the grammar baked in. Що це? 'what's this?', Хто це? 'who's this?', Де…? 'where?', Котра́ годи́на? 'what time is it?' (feminine ordinal + годи́на), Скі́льки це кошту́є? 'how much?', Як спра́ви? 'how are you?', Як вас зва́ти? 'what's your name?' (accusative + the verb зва́ти), Звідки ви? 'where are you from?', Що означа́є…? 'what does … mean?', Мо́жна…? 'may I…?'. Plus the key intonation point: Ukrainian yes/no questions need NO word-order inversion — Ти гото́вий? is the statement said with a rising tone. Memorizing these fixed frames gives instant communicative power and previews the case and verb systems.
• Courtesy in Depth: Прошу, Дякую, ПерепрошуюA2 — A deep dive into Ukrainian courtesy. The chameleon прошу́ — 'please', 'you're welcome', 'go ahead / after you', AND 'pardon?' (Про́шу? = 'sorry, what?'). Дя́кую governs the DATIVE (дя́кую вам / тобі́) with the reason in за + accusative (дя́кую за допомо́гу). The three 'excuse me / sorry' verbs — ви́бачте, перепро́шую, да́руйте — used both to apologize AND to get attention. Responses to thanks (Будь ла́ска / Прошу́ / Нема́ за що). The wish на здоро́в’я. And the ти/ви register that decides every ending. The takeaway: courtesy runs on the dative (дя́кую вам) and on the astonishingly versatile прошу́.
• Food, Drink, and EatingA2 — Food and drink vocabulary plus the grammar of eating. Foods (хліб, сир, м’я́со — apostrophe!, о́вочі, фру́кти, борщ, варе́ники, ка́ша) and drinks (вода́, чай, ка́ва, сік, молоко́); the meal verbs снідати / обідати / вечеряти; the fixed wish Сма́чного! 'enjoy your meal'. The grammatical heart: the PARTITIVE genitive for 'some' (нали́й води́ 'pour some water', хо́чеш ча́ю? 'want some tea?', дода́й со́лі) vs the accusative for the whole (з’їв борщ). And the apostrophe in м’я́со / п’є. The insight English speakers miss: offering and taking food runs on the partitive genitive, Сма́чного! is a genitive wish said before eating, and the apostrophe is non-negotiable.
• Travel and TransportA2 — Travel vocabulary and the four cases that power it. The means of transport is the bare INSTRUMENTAL — ї́хати по́тягом / авто́бусом / маши́ною, леті́ти літако́м ('by train/bus/car/plane', with no word for 'by'). Destinations split: до + GENITIVE for cities and people (до Ки́єва, до Льво́ва, до ба́бусі), but в / на + ACCUSATIVE for spaces you enter (в готе́ль, на вокза́л, в аеропо́рт). Tickets: квито́к до + genitive. Plus the motion-verb pairs (ї́хати / ї́здити, леті́ти / літа́ти) and survival phrases (Коли́ відхо́дить по́тяг?, Де зупи́нка?). The insight English speakers miss: 'by train' is just по́тягом, and 'to' depends on whether you're heading to a place-name (до + gen) or into a space (в/на + acc).
• Shopping in Depth: Quantities, Prices, and ChoicesA2 — The deeper shopping skill: every quantity word forces the GENITIVE (кілогра́м я́блук, літр молока́, пів кілогра́ма си́ру, пля́шка води́), prices need the genitive plural гри́вень, the requested item is ACCUSATIVE after Да́йте, будь ла́ска, and you handle ці́на, зни́жка, ка́са, готі́вкою/ка́рткою, розмі́р, при́мірочна. The insight English speakers miss: shopping is a case workout — genitive for amounts and prices, accusative for the thing you ask for.
• Telling People About YourselfA2 — The self-description toolkit, and why it's a free tour of the whole case system. Name: Мене́ зва́ти Анна. Origin: Я з + GENITIVE (Я з Льво́ва), Я ро́дом з… 'I'm originally from'. Residence: Я живу́ в + LOCATIVE (Я живу́ в Ки́єві). Age: Мені́ … ро́ків — DATIVE (Мені́ два́дцять п’ять ро́ків). Occupation: bare nominative (Я вчи́тель) or працю́ю + INSTRUMENTAL (Я працю́ю вчи́телем). Family: У ме́не є… 'I have…'. Interests: Я люблю́…, я цікавлюся / захо́плююся + INSTRUMENTAL. Languages: я розмовля́ю + INSTRUMENTAL (украї́нською). The insight English speakers miss: a basic self-intro already exercises five cases — genitive, locative, dative, instrumental, and the у ме́не є possession — so 'I'm a 25-year-old teacher from Lviv who loves sport' packs the whole system into one paragraph; mastering this self-intro is the highest-leverage early goal.
• The Seasons and Talking About WeatherA2 — Seasons and weather in depth. The four seasons (весна́, лі́то, о́сінь, зима́) and their 'when' adverbs in two forms each: навесні́ / весно́ю, влі́тку / лі́том, восени́ / о́сінню, взи́мку / зимо́ю. Weather is impersonal: Йде дощ 'it's raining' (дощ the subject), Сві́тить со́нце, Дме ві́тер, plus the predicative adverbs со́нячно / хма́рно / ві́тряно. Impersonal weather verbs: Похолода́ло 'it got cold', Поте́пліло 'it got warmer', Замело́, Розви́дніло. Temperature: плюс / мі́нус … гра́дусів (genitive plural after the count). Seasonal activities. The insight English speakers miss: 'in spring/summer/autumn/winter' are single frozen adverbs (навесні́, влі́тку, восени́, взи́мку), weather is subjectless, and counting degrees triggers the genitive plural — so this domain drills frozen adverbs, impersonal syntax, and the genitive-plural of counting.
• Giving Personal Information (Forms and Profiles)A2 — The language of forms and profiles. Ukrainian names have THREE parts: ім’я́ 'given name', по ба́тькові 'patronymic' (Іва́нович / Іва́нівна 'son/daughter of Ivan'), прі́звище 'surname'. Form fields: да́та наро́дження 'date of birth', мі́сце наро́дження, адре́са, но́мер телефо́ну, електро́нна по́шта, грома́дянство 'citizenship', стать 'sex', родинний стан 'marital status'. Filling in: Запо́вніть…, Вкажі́ть…, графа́ 'field/box'. The date of birth goes in the GENITIVE (наро́дився деся́того тра́вня). The insight English speakers miss: the patronymic is a whole extra name and is essential for formal address, and dates of birth are written in the genitive — both unfamiliar to English speakers.
• Everyday Exclamations and ReactionsA2 — The fixed reactions that make speech sound alive. Surprise: Ого́!, Невже́?, Спра́вді?, Серйо́зно?. Delight: Чудо́во!, Кла́сно!, Су́пер!, Як га́рно!. Dismay: Ой!, О ні!, Жах!, Яки́й жах!, Бо́же!. Agreement: Зві́сно!, Авже́ж!, То́чно!, Са́ме так!. Sympathy: Шкода́ 'too bad', Співчува́ю 'I sympathise'. The insight English speakers miss: natural conversation is punctuated with these fixed one-word reactions — Невже́? / Спра́вді? for surprise, Яки́й жах! 'how awful', Шкода́ 'what a pity' (a single word), Авже́ж 'of course' — they decline minimally but carry the emotional register, so peppering speech with them makes a learner sound engaged and native rather than robotic.
• Making Plans and ArrangementsA2 — Arranging meetings and plans, and the three structures it runs on. Suggesting: Мо́же, пі́демо…? 'shall we go…?' (Мо́же + future), Дава́й(те) + future (Дава́й зустрі́немося), Як що́до…? + GENITIVE (Як що́до ка́ви? 'how about coffee?'). Agreeing: Чудо́ва іде́я!, Дава́й!, Гара́зд 'OK'. Declining politely: На жаль, не змо́жу 'unfortunately I won't be able to'. Time and place: о + LOCATIVE (о сьо́мій 'at seven'), бі́ля + GENITIVE (бі́ля метро́ 'by the metro'), зустрі́немося 'let's meet'. Confirming: Домо́вилися! 'agreed/deal!' (past of домо́витися). The insight English speakers miss: 'how about X?' is Як що́до + GENITIVE, suggestions use Мо́же + future, and the deal-sealer is Домо́вилися! ('we've agreed') — so plan-making runs on що́до + genitive, the future tense, and these fixed transactional phrases.
• Following and Giving DirectionsA2 — Giving and following directions in Ukrainian, deepened. The imperative direction verbs — іді́ть / ї́дьте пря́мо 'go straight', поверні́ть ліво́руч / право́руч 'turn left / right', перейді́ть доро́гу 'cross the road', пройді́ть 'go through'. Landmarks as preposition + case: на ро́зі (на + locative), за ро́гом (за + instrumental), навпро́ти / бі́ля + GENITIVE, по́ряд / по́руч + з + instrumental, че́рез доро́гу (че́рез + accusative). Distances (за два кварта́ли, бли́зько). The insight: directions weld imperative verbs to case-governed spatial prepositions — the case carries the spatial relation, not the verb.
• Times of Day and Daily ScheduleA1 — Parts of the day and describing a daily routine in Ukrainian. The day-part nouns ра́нок / день / ве́чір / ніч and their frozen 'when' adverbs — вра́нці / зра́нку 'in the morning', удень 'in the daytime', уве́чері 'in the evening', уночі́ 'at night'. Clock times with о / об + LOCATIVE ordinal (о во́сьмій, об одина́дцятій — об before a vowel), опі́вдні / опі́вночі 'at noon / midnight', and a daily-routine vocabulary (встава́ти, снідати, лягати спа́ти) with ра́но / пі́зно 'early / late'.
• Quantities, Containers, and MeasuresA2 — Container, measure, and quantity words in Ukrainian, all built on the GENITIVE. 'A cup of coffee' drops the 'of': ча́шка ка́ви (container + bare genitive). Containers (ча́шка, скля́нка, пля́шка, паке́т, ло́жка), measures (кілогра́м, літр, метр, шмато́к), and the quantifiers бага́то / ма́ло / тро́хи + genitive. Counted plurals (дві ча́шки ка́ви, п’ять я́блук) trigger their own number agreement on the container. The everyday face of the genitive of quantity.

• Learner Path: A1 FoundationsA1 — An ordered, friction-free study route through Ukrainian for absolute beginners — alphabet to first sentences, with no page depending on a later one.
• Learner Path: A2 Core GrammarA2 — An ordered A2 route that interlocks the full case system with verbal aspect — cases before case-governed prepositions, aspect overview before aspect-in-tense.
• Learner Path: B1 IntermediateB1 — An ordered B1 route through Ukrainian's productive systems — aspect derivation, prefixed motion, conditional and щоб, reflexive -ся, modality, and relative clauses.
• Learner Path: B2 Upper-IntermediateB2 — A guided B2 sequence through the formal and written code of Ukrainian — participles, the -но/-то passive, the subtler aspect and government distinctions — paired with the non-fiction texts that exemplify them.
• Learner Path: C1 AdvancedC1 — A guided C1 sequence toward register-aware command — the pluperfect and modal nuance, journalistic and academic style, literary and poetic features, and the sociolinguistic awareness needed to read the canon and the columns unaided.
• Learner Path: C2 MasteryC2 — A consolidation-and-polish path for near-native command — full aspect control, the complete genitive-plural and numeral systems, every register, dialect and surzhyk recognition, and the finest pragmatic and stylistic subtleties.

• Basic Negation with НеA1 — Ukrainian negates with the particle не, placed directly in front of the word it negates — usually the verb (не зна́ю 'I don't know'), but also a noun (не я 'not me'), adjective, or adverb (не ду́же 'not very'). There is no auxiliary 'do/does/did' — не attaches straight to the verb in its normal form. Не is written separately (не хо́чу) except in a handful of fixed compounds (нема́є, немо́жливо). The present-tense copula simply drops: Він не студе́нт 'He's not a student'.
• Genitive of NegationA2 — Negation in Ukrainian can change the case of the object. With нема́є / не було́ / не бу́де ('there is/was/will be no…') the absent thing is ALWAYS genitive (Нема́є хлі́ба, Не було́ води́, У ме́не нема́є ча́су). With an ordinary negated transitive verb the direct object often flips from accusative to genitive — strongly so with abstract or indefinite objects (Я не чита́ю газе́т, Він не зна́є пра́вди) — while concrete, definite objects allow the accusative too (Я не ба́чив цей фільм / цьо́го фі́льму).
• Double and Multiple NegationA2 — Ukrainian requires the negative concord that prescriptive English forbids: whenever a ні- word appears (ніхто́, ніщо́, ніко́ли, ніде́, нія́кий, нічи́й), the verb MUST also carry не — Ніхто́ не прийшо́в 'no one came' (literally 'no one didn't come') is the ONLY correct form. Negatives stack and all stay, intensifying rather than cancelling: Ніхто́ ніко́ли ніко́му нічо́го не каза́в. The ні…ні 'neither…nor' frame also keeps verbal не, and prepositions wedge inside the ні- word (ні з ким, ні про що́).
• Ні, Не vs Ні, and Special Negative ConstructionsB1 — Ukrainian splits negation across two words English fuses into one. Не negates a word or verb (не хочу́ 'I don't want'); ні is the standalone answer 'no' and the emphasizer 'not a single' (ні сло́ва 'not a word', ні ра́зу 'not once', ні душі́ 'not a soul'). Master the не…а correction 'not X but Y' (не сього́дні, а за́втра), the intensifiers зо́всім не / аж нія́к не 'not at all', the false friend не оди́н 'many a / more than one' (NOT 'not once' — that's ні ра́зу), and the idiomatic нема́ + infinitive 'there's nowhere/nothing to V' (нема́ де сі́сти 'nowhere to sit', нема́ що роби́ти 'nothing to do').

• Plural-Only and Singular-Only NounsB1 — Some Ukrainian nouns are locked to one number: plurale tantum like двері, гроші, окуляри exist only in the plural and take plural agreement, while singularia tantum like молоко, щастя and the collective -я neuters like волосся, листя exist only in the singular — and the grammar often runs opposite to English.
• Noun Forms After Numbers (Preview)A2 — After a number, a Ukrainian noun changes shape three different ways: 1 takes the nominative singular, 2–4 take the nominative plural with a stress that often jumps to the ending (два столи́), and 5 and up take the genitive plural — and the 2–4 rule, using the nominative plural rather than the Russian genitive singular, is a hallmark of correct Ukrainian.
• Animacy and the AccusativeA2 — Ukrainian has no dedicated accusative ending for most masculine nouns: a living thing borrows its accusative from the genitive (бачу брата), a non-living thing borrows it from the nominative (бачу стіл) — so whether a noun is alive literally changes how it declines, and the same split governs all plurals.
• The О/І and Е/І AlternationA2 — Ukrainian's signature vowel swap: an о or е in a closed final syllable (one ending in a consonant) becomes і — кіт, ніч, стіл — but reverts to о/е the moment an ending opens the syllable (кота́, но́чі, стола́); the same swing runs in reverse when a zero ending closes a syllable in the genitive plural (нога́→ніг, гора́→гір).
• Fleeting Vowels (О/Е → ∅)B1 — Ukrainian's appearing-and-vanishing vowel: an о or е that props open a consonant cluster in one form and disappears in another — inserted in the genitive plural (вікно́→ві́кон, сестра́→сесте́р) and dropped when an ending is added (сон→сну, день→дня) — and the choice between о and е/є is predictable from the surrounding consonants.

Gender & Number

• Grammatical Gender: Masculine, Feminine, NeuterA1 — Ukrainian sorts every noun into three genders — masculine, feminine, neuter — and you can predict which about 90% of the time from the nominative singular ending; gender then drives all adjective, pronoun, and past-tense agreement, so it must be learned with each word.
• Gender of Soft-Sign NounsB1 — Nouns ending in -ь split between masculine and feminine with no spelling clue — but strong patterns tame the chaos: every -ість abstract and the ч/ж/ш + ь nouns are feminine, while день, кінь, учитель, степ and the Ukrainian-specific біль 'pain' are masculine; the gender then decides the instrumental ending.
• Forming the Nominative PluralA1 — The regular nominative plural in Ukrainian: hard stems take -и, soft and hushing stems take -і, neuters take -а/-я — and the choice follows stem hardness, while words like стіл→столи reveal the о/і alternation reversing as the syllable opens, a pattern with no Russian parallel.
• Irregular and Suppletive PluralsB1 — The high-frequency plurals that break the regular rules — suppletive люди/діти, the -ин singulatives that drop their suffix (громадяни), the -ата animal-young plurals (телята), the -ен- neuters (імена), and the old dual body-part pairs (очі, вуха) — grouped by their historical class so they can be learned together, with the genitive plural given for each.
• Natural Gender and Common-Gender NounsB1 — For words denoting people, natural gender can override the ending's usual signal: та́то and дя́дько end in -о yet are masculine, суддя́ ends in -я yet is masculine, and common-gender nouns like сирота́ flip their agreement depending on whether the person is male or female.
• Predicting Gender: A Practice GuideA1 — A practical drill for assigning Ukrainian noun gender from the ending: consonant/-й → masculine (стіл, чай), -а/-я → feminine (кни́га, земля́), -о/-е → neuter (вікно́, мо́ре). The reliable signals plus the short exception list you actually have to memorize: the masculine -а/-о people-words (та́то, дя́дько, суддя́) and the split -ь nouns (день masc, ніч fem). The insight English speakers miss: gender is ~90% predictable from the ending, so the smart move is to automate the rule and memorize only the exceptions.

Special Categories

• Indeclinable NounsB1 — A set of mostly foreign nouns — кіно́, метро́, таксі́, пальто́, кафе́, меню́, ра́діо — keep a single frozen form in every case, yet they still carry gender and number invisibly; agreement therefore falls entirely on the adjectives and verbs around them (смачне́ кака́о, нове́ таксі́), and Ukrainian assigns most inanimate ones to neuter.
• Declension of Names and SurnamesB1 — Ukrainian first names decline by their ending like ordinary nouns (Іва́н→Іва́на, Оле́на→Оле́ни), but surnames split into three patterns: adjectival -ський/-цький surnames decline like adjectives, -енко surnames stay invariant for everyone, and consonant-stem surnames (-ук, -чук, -ів) decline for men but freeze for women — plus every name takes the obligatory vocative in direct address (Іва́не! Марі́є!).
• Collective and Mass NounsB2 — Ukrainian has a productive class of collective nouns that name a group as one singular mass — the -ство abstracts (студе́нтство, лю́дство), -ня kin-words (рідня́), and especially the neuter -я collectives (ли́стя 'foliage', камі́ння 'stones', воло́сся 'hair', гілля́ 'branches'), most with a lengthened consonant — all grammatically singular, so 'the leaves are falling' is ли́стя па́дає with a singular verb, clashing with the English plural instinct.
• Diminutives and AugmentativesB1 — Ukrainian builds an enormous range of evaluative nouns by suffix — diminutives (-ок, -ик, -чик, -ка, -очка, -ечко, -ечка) that add smallness and especially warmth (ко́тик, со́нечко, хлі́бчик, до́нечка), and augmentatives/pejoratives (-ище, -исько, -юга, -яга) that add largeness or contempt (вовчи́ще, злодю́га) — and these are pragmatically expected in everyday speech, child-talk, and endearment far more than anything in English.
• Declension I in Full (кни́га, земля́, суддя́)B1 — Declension I covers the huge class of -а/-я nouns; once you master its three real complications — the velar mutation in the dative-locative (рука́→руці́, нога́→нозі́), the zero-ending genitive plural (книг, земе́ль, шкіл), and the -ою/-ею instrumental — the entire class follows.
• Declension II in Full (стіл, кінь, вікно́, по́ле)B1 — Declension II holds the masculine consonant-stem and neuter -о/-е nouns; it is where the о/і alternation (стіл→стола́), the genitive -а/-у split, the personal dative -ові/-еві (бра́тові), and the special locative -у (в саду́) all converge, while the neuters run a simpler course.
• Declensions III and IV (ніч, ма́ти, ім’я́, теля́)B1 — The two small declensions carry the biggest surprises: Declension III feminines double the final consonant in the instrumental (ніч→ні́ччю, сіль→сі́ллю) or add an apostrophe (любо́в→любо́в’ю), and Declension IV neuters secretly grow a syllable in oblique cases (ім’я́→і́мені, теля́→теля́ти).
• Compound Nouns and Their DeclensionB2 — Whether one part or both parts of a Ukrainian compound inflect depends on its type: solid compounds inflect only the final element (теплохі́д→теплохо́да), appositional hyphenated pairs inflect BOTH (ди́ван-лі́жко→дива́на-лі́жка), and modern noun+noun hyphenates keep the first part fixed (бі́знес-план→бі́знес-пла́ну).

Stem Phenomena

• Consonant Mutation in Declension (К/Ц, Г/З, Х/С)B1 — When a Ukrainian stem ends in a velar — к, г, х — and the case ending is the soft -і of the dative/locative singular (and certain plural and derived forms), the velar is forced to mutate: к→ц (рука́ → на руці́), г→з (нога́ → на нозі́), х→с (му́ха → му́сі); applying this automatically is one of the clearest markers of real competence.

Cardinals

• Cardinal Numbers 1–20A1 — The numbers нуль to два́дцять — with the gendered оди́н/одна́/одне́ and два/дві, the fused -на́дцять teens, and the apostrophe/soft-sign spelling traps (п’ять, шість, ві́сім, де́в’ять) that make Ukrainian numerals an orthography test from day one.
• Tens, Hundreds, and Large NumbersA2 — The tens (два́дцять…дев’яно́сто), the hundreds (сто…дев’ятсо́т), and ти́сяча / мільйо́н / мілья́рд — featuring the three irregulars every learner must memorize (со́рок, дев’яно́сто, дві́сті), the -деся́т and -со́т compounding, and the crucial fact that ти́сяча and мільйо́н are NOUNS that govern the genitive plural.
• Telling the TimeA2 — Ukrainian clock-telling runs on feminine ordinals (because годи́на 'hour' is feminine): the hour is пе́рша/дру́га годи́на, 'at' an hour is о + locative (о п’я́тій), 'half past' counts TOWARD the next hour (пів на тре́тю = 2:30), 'quarter/minutes past' use на + accusative of the coming hour, and 'to' the hour uses за + nominative — a system built on ordinals and prepositions, not the cardinal clock of English.
• Money, Age, and Everyday CountingA2 — The numeral-agreement rule made practical: counting money (одна́ гри́вня, дві гри́вні, п’ять гри́вень), asking and stating prices (Скі́льки ко́штує? — ко́штує п’ять гри́вень), and the dative-experiencer age construction (Мені́ два́дцять ро́ків) where 'year' is suppletive — рік (1), ро́ки (2–4), ро́ків (5+) — so 'I am five' literally says 'to-me five years' with no verb 'to be'.

Numeral Grammar

• Numeral–Noun Agreement (The Hard Part)B1 — The notorious three-way rule: after 1 (and …1) the noun is nominative SINGULAR, after 2/3/4 (and …2/3/4) nominative PLURAL with the dual-reflex end-stress (два столи́, дві сестри́), and after 5+ genitive PLURAL — chosen by the LAST digit, and applying only when the whole phrase is nominative or inanimate-accusative.
• Declining the NumeralsB2 — How the cardinals themselves inflect across the cases — оди́н (одного́/одному́/одни́м), два/три/чоти́ри (двох/двом/двома́), п’ять (п’яти́·п’ятьо́х, п’ятьма́·п’ятьома́), the single-form со́рок/сто (сорока́/ста), and the both-parts hundreds (двохсо́т) — so you can count in oblique cases, where the numeral declines and the noun simply agrees.
• Collective Numerals (Двоє, Троє, Четверо)B1 — Ukrainian's second set of low numbers — дво́є, тро́є, че́тверо, п’я́теро… — used for groups of people (нас було́ че́тверо), plural-only nouns where two/three fail (тро́є двере́й), and the young of animals (че́тверо кошеня́т); they govern the genitive plural and signal a warm, cohesive group, with два́ vs дво́є being a register choice English has no parallel for.
• Approximation and Quantity ExpressionsB2 — How Ukrainian says 'about', 'roughly', and 'a few' — including the word-order trick English lacks: INVERTING the number and noun signals approximation (ро́ків п’ять 'about five years' vs п’ять ро́ків 'exactly five'). Plus бли́зько / ко́ло + genitive, з + accusative (з годи́ну), понад + accusative, and the vague quantifiers кі́лька, кі́льканадцять, чима́ло, сила-силе́нна.
• Обидва/Обидві, Pairs, and Counting SetsB1 — Ukrainian 'both' is gendered and declinable — оби́два (masc/neut), оби́дві (fem), обо́є (people/mixed) — with one oblique set (обо́х, обо́м, обо́ма); plus па́ра 'a pair' + genitive and the collective дво́є/тро́є for paired and plural-only nouns.
• Declining 'Two', 'Three', 'Four', and 'Five'B2 — Detailed oblique-case forms of the four most-used cardinals: два/дві → двох / двом / двома́; три → трьох / трьом / трьома́; чоти́ри → чотирьо́х / чотирьо́м / чотирма́ (irregular instrumental!); п’ять → п’яти́·п’ятьо́х, п’ятьма́·п’ятьома́. The big rule English speakers skip: outside the nominative/accusative BOTH the numeral and the noun decline together — з двома́ дру́зями, про трьох сесте́р, дав п’ятьо́м студе́нтам — so *з два брати́ is simply wrong.

Ordinals & Fractions

• Ordinal NumbersA2 — пе́рший, дру́гий, тре́тій (the one soft-stem ordinal), четве́ртий… — ordinals are full ADJECTIVES that agree in gender, number and case, and in compound ordinals only the LAST word is ordinal (два́дцять пе́рший, ти́сяча дев’ятсо́т дев’яно́сто пе́рший), the form behind dates, floors, centuries and the time.
• Fractions, Decimals, and ArithmeticB2 — How Ukrainian reads ½, ⅔, 3,14, and the four operations: fractions are a cardinal numerator + a genitive-plural ordinal denominator (дві тре́тіх), the noun after them goes genitive singular (дві тре́тіх скля́нки), decimals use a COMMA read with ці́лих + деся́тих (три ці́лих чотирна́дцять со́тих = 3,14), and the gendered півтора́/півтори́ 'one and a half' splits by the noun's gender.
• Dates, Years, and CenturiesB1 — A full Ukrainian date is a chain of GENITIVES — day-ordinal + month + year-ordinal + ро́ку (деся́того тра́вня дві ти́сячі два́дцять четве́ртого ро́ку) — but 'in (a year)' switches to the LOCATIVE (у дві ти́сячі два́дцять четве́ртому ро́ці). Only the last word of the compound number is the ordinal; centuries use ordinals (XXI = два́дцять пе́рше столі́ття).

• Particles: OverviewA2 — Particles (ча́стки) are small uninflected words that add nuance, emphasis, modality, or grammatical function but are NOT sentence members — they don't change form and don't answer 'who/what/which'. This page surveys the categories: negation (не/ні), modal (би/б, хай/нехай, бода́й), emphatic/limiting (же/ж, таки́, аж, наві́ть, ті́льки, лише́), question (чи, хіба́, невже́), demonstrative (ось/от/он), affirmation (так/ні), and word-forming (-сь, будь-, -небудь, аби-, де-, -бо, -но). Particles do the work English does with intonation, word order, and auxiliaries — omitting them is grammatical but flat.
• The Question Particle ЧиA2 — Чи is a triple-duty word. (1) It optionally fronts a YES/NO question for clarity or formality (Чи ти гото́вий? 'are you ready?') — a cleaner alternative to intonation-only questions. (2) It means 'or' in alternative questions and lists (Чай чи ка́ва? 'tea or coffee?', Ти пі́деш чи ні? 'will you go or not?'). (3) It renders 'whether/if' in INDIRECT questions (Не зна́ю, чи він при́йде 'I don't know whether he'll come') — and crucially this is чи, NOT якщо́. The English 'do you…?' question-formation, 'or', and 'whether' all map onto чи.
• Emphatic Particles (Же/Ж, Таки́, Аж, Наві́ть, Тільки)B1 — The high-frequency emphatic and focus particles that carry attitude English marks with stress or words like 'after all / even / just'. же/ж (ж after a vowel) 'after all / then / indeed', enclitic, sits second (Що ж роби́ти?, Ти ж обіця́в!). таки́ 'still / after all / indeed' (Він таки́ прийшо́в). аж 'as much as / all the way / even' (аж до Ки́єва, аж три ра́зи). наві́ть 'even'. ті́льки/лише́/лиш 'only / just'. саме́ 'exactly'. -бо/-но urge a command (Іди́-бо!, скажи́-но). Peppering speech with these is what makes Ukrainian sound native; же/ж especially is ubiquitous and almost untranslatable.
• Modal and Imperative Particles (Хай/Нехай, -но, Давай, Бодай)B1 — Ukrainian builds third-person commands and wishes with хай/нехай + a present/future verb (Хай прийде́ 'let him come', Неха́й живе́ Украї́на! 'long live Ukraine!'), says 'let's' with дава́й/дава́йте, softens or urges a direct command with the enclitic -но/-бо (Скажи́-но 'do tell', Гля́нь-но! 'just look!'), and wishes with бода́й and нехай би/хоч би 'if only'. Where English needs a whole periphrastic 'let him…' or 'do… would you', Ukrainian uses a single particle.
• Demonstrative and Affirmation Particles (Ось, От, Он, Так, Ні)A2 — Ukrainian presents things to attention with pointing particles — ось 'here is' (near), он 'there is, over yonder' (far), от 'there / that's' (and a discourse 'well, so') — and answers yes/no with так 'yes' and ні 'no', plus colloquial еге́(ж)/ага́ 'yeah' and аякже́ 'of course'. A soft contradiction is та ні 'oh no, well no'. Mastering ось/от makes presentational 'here's / there's' sentences natural, and so unlearns the English instinct to start them with a verb.
• The Negation Particles Не and НіA2 — Ukrainian negates with two particles that English fuses into one word. Не is the workhorse negator, written separately before the negated word or verb (не зна́ю 'I don't know', не тут 'not here', не я 'not me'). Ні is the emphatic and coordinating negator: the answer 'no', 'not a single' (ні сло́ва, ні копі́йки), the correlative 'neither…nor' (ні…ні), and the prefix that builds the ні-pronouns (ніхто́, ніде́). The crux is double-negation concord — a ні-word forces the verb to also carry не: ніхто́ НЕ прийшо́в 'nobody came'. The trap: не оди́н means 'more than one', not 'not one'.

• The Pragmatics of Ти and ВиB1 — Beyond the grammar of ти/ви lies a continuous social calculation: ти marks intimacy, solidarity, equality, family, children, animals, God and inner monologue, while ви marks respect, distance, age-gaps, strangers, professionals and any plural addressee. This page covers the negotiated switch to ти (Перейдімо на ти / Мо́жна на ти?), the social cost of mismatches (ти to an elder reads as rude; ви to a close friend reads as cold), the capital Ви in letters, regional and generational variation (more ви in the west), and the rule of thumb to observe and mirror your interlocutor.
• Politeness, Requests, and SofteningB1 — How Ukrainian makes a request without sounding blunt: the conditional softener (Чи не могли́ б ви… 'could you', Я б хоті́в… 'I'd like'), the particle будь ла́ска, чи не ва́жко вам…? 'would it be too much trouble', and чи мо́жна…? 'may I'. Imperfective imperatives for warm invitations (Захо́дьте! Сіда́йте! Пригоща́йтеся!) versus blunter perfective for one specific ask, the softening particle -но (Скажи́-но), and how to cushion a refusal (на жаль, ви́бачте, а́ле…). The insight English speakers miss: Ukrainian softens primarily with the conditional past+би, not with intonation.
• Compliments, Congratulations, and WishesB1 — The language of good wishes runs entirely on case government. Congratulations take Вітаю́ (вас) з + INSTRUMENTAL (Вітаю́ з днем наро́дження!, Вітаю́ зі свя́том!, З Нови́м ро́ком!); wishes take Бажа́ю + DATIVE recipient + GENITIVE of the thing (Бажа́ю тобі́ ща́стя, здоро́в’я, успі́хів!); toasts use За + ACCUSATIVE (За вас!, За здоро́в’я!) plus Бу́дьмо! Compliments (Тобі́ ду́же ли́чить!, Яки́й га́рний…!), the food/health wishes Смачно́го! and На здоро́в’я!, condolences (Мої́ співчуття́), and how to accept a compliment graciously. The insight: pick the wrong case and the wish is wrong.
• The Pragmatics of DiminutivesB2 — Diminutives are a pragmatic instrument, not just 'small X'. Ukrainian reaches for them to signal affection (со́нечко, ко́тику), to warm an offer of food (ще борщику́?, ча́йку?, скушту́й пирі́жечка), to soften a request (хвили́нку, секу́ндочку), in child-directed speech, and in markets to sound friendly (помідо́рчики, я́блучка). Overuse sounds saccharine or manipulative; underuse sounds cold; and they are out of place in formal registers. Names diminutivise in chains (Іва́н→Іва́нко→Іва́нчик). The insight: choosing to diminutivise encodes emotional and social stance, something English does only with extra words or tone.
• Language, Identity, and Sensitive UsageB2 — A factual guide to the usage choices that carry identity weight in modern Ukrainian. The standard в Украї́ні ('in Ukraine', not на Украї́ні — now the affirmed form); the Ukrainian-derived romanizations Kyiv (not Kiev), Lviv (not Lvov), Kharkiv, Odesa, Chornobyl; preferring native Ukrainian words over russisms; су́ржик (the mixed Ukrainian-Russian vernacular) described neutrally as a sociolinguistic reality to recognise but not to imitate; держа́вна мо́ва ('the state language'); and the Сла́ва Украї́ні! — Геро́ям сла́ва! exchange. The insight: several everyday choices signal current, respectful standard Ukrainian, and the standard has deliberately moved on some of them.
• Hedging and IndirectnessB2 — How Ukrainian softens claims and cushions face-threats. Epistemic hedges mark uncertainty (ма́буть 'probably', можли́во 'perhaps', здає́ться 'it seems', на́чебто 'sort of / supposedly', як на ме́не 'as I see it', наскі́льки я зна́ю 'as far as I know'). The conditional б / би softens requests and advice (Чи не могли́ б ви…? 'Could you possibly…?', я б ра́див 'I'd advise', ва́рто було́ б 'it might be worth'). Approximators blur figures (десь 'about', прибли́зно 'approximately'), and criticism is cushioned with не зо́всім 'not quite'. The insight English speakers miss is that polite Ukrainian softens with these parenthetical hedges and the conditional, not with intonation alone — so a blunt, unhedged assertion can sound abrupt.
• Humour, Irony, and Playful LanguageC1 — How Ukrainian signals humour and irony — an advanced, recognition-oriented pragmatics page. Irony often rides on a REGISTER CLASH: ironic diminutives (гарне́нький said sneeringly), mock-formality (ironic Вельмишано́вний…), and exaggerated politeness. The particles do heavy lifting: же/таки for pointed sarcastic emphasis (Молоде́ць, таки́ зроби́в!), ну-ну and отакої́ as deflating reactions, аякже́ 'yeah, right' as flat denial dressed as agreement. Rhetorical questions frame sarcasm (Хіба́ це пробле́ма?, Хіба́ я ви́нен?). Understatement, set ironic phrases (Дя́кую, ду́же допомі́г = 'thanks, big help'), and wordplay on the rich derivational system round it out. The insight English speakers miss: Ukrainian irony is carried by particles, diminutive irony, mock-register, and rhetorical-question frames — signals you must learn to read, because the words say one thing and the frame says the opposite.
• Formal Correspondence and EtiquetteC1 — The frozen frames of formal letters and email: the VOCATIVE salutation (Шано́вний па́не Петре́нку! / Шано́вна па́ні Окса́но! — both title and name in the vocative), the courteous CAPITAL Ви / Вас / Ваш throughout, opening formulas (Зверта́юся до Вас…, Пишу́ Вам у спра́ві…), conditional politeness (Був би вдя́чний, Хоті́в би Вас попроси́ти, Бу́демо вдя́чні, якщо́…), softened indirect requests, and the fixed closings (З по́вагою, З найкра́щими побажа́ннями, З поша́ною). Formal Ukrainian correspondence is governed by the vocative salutation and a set of politeness frames absent from speech.

By Case

• Prepositions Governing the GenitiveA2 — The genitive governs the largest set of Ukrainian prepositions — the prepositions of absence, benefit, origin, bounded destination, proximity, sequence, and opposition: без, для, до, від, з/із/зі, бі́ля/ко́ло, по́близу, се́ред/посере́д, навко́ло/довко́ла, після, про́ти/навпро́ти, замість, крім/окрім, ра́ди/зара́ди, протя́гом, під час. The key insight for English speakers is that the rich meanings of English 'to', 'from', and 'for' fan out across several fixed genitive pairings — до (to a person / up to a limit), від (from a source), з (out of a place), для (for a beneficiary) — each learned as one unit.
• Prepositions Governing the AccusativeA2 — The accusative is the case of topic, crossing, exchange, and direction. Always-accusative prepositions: про 'about', че́рез 'through/across/because of/in (a time)', за 'in exchange / within (a time)', по 'for/to fetch', попри 'in spite of', понад 'over (a quantity)'. Plus the alternating spatial set в/у, на, за, під, над — which take the accusative ONLY for motion-toward (куди?) and switch to the locative or instrumental for static location. The insight English speakers miss: 'about' is про + ACCUSATIVE (думаю про тебе — no genitive!), direction always pulls the accusative, and 'thanks for' is дякую за + accusative.
• Prepositions Governing the InstrumentalA2 — The instrumental governs the prepositions of accompaniment and static relative position: з/із/зі 'with, together with' (з дру́гом, чай з молоко́м), над 'above', під 'under (located)', за 'behind / at' (за столо́м), пе́ред 'in front of', між/поміж 'between', по́за 'outside', and поряд з / поруч з 'next to'. Two insights anchor the page: the preposition з is BOTH 'with' (+ instrumental) and 'from' (+ genitive) — the case alone disambiguates з дру́гом 'with a friend' from з дру́га 'from a friend'; and over/under/behind/in-front take the instrumental for STATIC location but the accusative for motion-toward.
• Prepositions Governing the LocativeA2 — The locative is the one case that NEVER appears without a preposition — and only five prepositions take it: у/в 'in' (у Ки́єві, в кни́зі), на 'on / at' (на столі́, на робо́ті), при 'by / at / in the presence of' (при доро́зі, при мені́), по 'along / around / per / after' (по ву́лиці, по понеді́лках, по обі́ді), and о/об 'at (o'clock)' (о тре́тій, об одина́дцятій). The page anchors the location-vs-motion switch (на столі́ loc vs на стіл acc) and settles the standard, nation-affirming form в Украї́ні ('in Ukraine'), not the older на Украї́ні.
• До and Від: The 'to/from' PairA2 — До 'to / up to / until' and від 'from / away from' both take the GENITIVE and work as a directional pair: до marks motion toward a person or a bounded point (іду́ до лі́каря, до Ки́єва, до кінця́), від marks motion away from a source or person (лист від ма́ми, ліки́ від ка́шлю), and від… до… spans a range.
• З/Із/Зі: 'from', 'with', and 'off'B1 — З is three prepositions in one word, separated by case: з + GENITIVE = 'from / out of / off / since' (з Ки́єва, зі столу́, з ра́нку, одна́ з книг), з + INSTRUMENTAL = 'with' (з дру́гом, ка́ва з молоко́м), з + ACCUSATIVE = 'about / approximately' (з годи́ну) — and the із/зі shapes are chosen purely by the surrounding sounds.
• Spatial Prepositions: над, під, перед, за, між, біляB1 — The over/under/behind/in-front/between prepositions (над, під, пе́ред, за, між) take the INSTRUMENTAL for static location (під столо́м 'under the table') and the ACCUSATIVE for motion toward (під стіл 'under the table'), while 'near / around / among' (бі́ля, навко́ло, се́ред) take the genitive — so spatial description needs the right preposition AND the right location-vs-direction case.

Fundamentals

• Prepositions and Case Government: OverviewA2 — The founding principle of the Ukrainian prepositional system: every preposition GOVERNS a case — you cannot use a preposition without putting its noun in the case it demands. Only five of the seven cases are governable (gen/dat/acc/instr/loc); some prepositions take different cases for different meanings (на + acc motion vs на + loc location; з + gen 'from' vs з + instr 'with'); and the relationship lives in the preposition AND the ending together, with euphonic variants (з/із/зі, у/в, від/од) chosen for sound.
• Euphonic Variants: з/із/зі, у/в, від/одB1 — The euphonic preposition variants — з/із/зі ('with, from'), у/в ('in'), and від/од ('from') — are the SAME preposition in different phonetic clothing, chosen purely to smooth the boundary between sounds: з before a vowel or single consonant, зі before з/с/ш/щ-clusters, із to break an awkward consonant pile-up; у after a consonant or at a pause, в after a vowel. The choice never touches case or meaning — it parallels the word-level в/у and і/й euphony and is one of the clearest markers of native-like, polished Ukrainian.

Tricky Prepositions

• В/У vs На: A Persistent DifficultyB1 — The в/у-vs-на choice for English 'in/at/to' is one of Ukrainian's stubbornest puzzles because it does not map onto 'in' vs 'on'. The clean half of the rule is spatial — enclosed spaces and most place-names take в/у (в кімна́ті, в Украї́ні, у Льво́ві), while surfaces and open areas take на (на столі́, на ву́лиці). The messy half is a lexicalised set where на marks events, activities and certain institutions seen as functions rather than buildings (на робо́ті, на по́шті, на вокза́лі, на заво́ді), an idiosyncratic split you must learn word-by-word — so 'at work' is на робо́ті but 'at school' is в шко́лі. And one form is a political fault line: в Украї́ні is the only correct standard Ukrainian, на Україні the Russian-imperial relic.
• The Versatile Preposition ПоB1 — По is the multi-tool of the Ukrainian preposition set: with the LOCATIVE it means 'around / along / over a surface' (по мі́сту, по доро́зі), 'by / via' (по телефо́ну, по по́шті), 'after' in fixed time phrases (по обі́ді), and it builds the по-...-ому / по-...-ськи manner adverbs (по-украї́нськи, по-моє́му); with the ACCUSATIVE it means 'up to / until' (по колі́на 'up to the knees', по п’я́те число́); and it carries the distributive 'so many each' (по одно́му, по дві гри́вні). A single по covers English along / around / by / per / according-to. The big trap: 'по + dative' is a Russian calque — standard Ukrainian uses по + locative, or replaces по with за / на / з depending on sense.
• The Many Uses of ЗаB1 — За is a two-case preposition whose meaning is read off the case. With the INSTRUMENTAL it is static: 'behind / beyond' (за до́мом, за кордо́ном), 'at' a table or task (за столо́м, за робо́тою), 'after / following' (оди́н за о́дним), and 'to fetch' (піти́ за хлі́бом). With the ACCUSATIVE it is dynamic or transactional: motion 'behind' (за ріг), 'for / in exchange for' (дя́кую за допомо́гу, плати́ти за ка́ву), 'within' a future time-span (за годи́ну, за ти́ждень), 'by' a body part (за́ руку), and — crucially — the comparative 'than' (ста́рший за ме́не). With the GENITIVE it means 'in the era of' (за часі́в, за Шевче́нка). The split за стіл (motion) vs за столо́м (location) is the same motion-vs-location switch that runs through the whole preposition system.
• Через, За, Про in Time and Other UsesB1 — Three high-frequency accusative prepositions: че́рез 'across / after (future) / because of' (че́рез доро́гу, че́рез годи́ну, че́рез дощ), за 'within / for / than / by' (за годи́ну, дя́кую за, ста́рший за), and про 'about' (розповісти́ про…) — with the key contrast че́рез годи́ну 'an hour from now' vs за годи́ну 'within an hour'.

Demonstrative & Determinative

• Demonstrative Pronouns (Цей, Той)A1 — Ukrainian points with two demonstratives — цей/ця/це/ці 'this' (near) and той/та/те/ті 'that' (far) — and both AGREE with their noun and DECLINE like adjectives (цей → цьо́го, цьо́му, цим; той → того́, тому́, тим). The neuter це does double duty: 'this' as a pointer (це мі́сто 'this city') and the copula-less 'this is / it is' (Це мій друг 'this is my friend'), so Ukrainian has no separate word for 'it is' — just це plus a noun.
• Determinative Pronouns (Весь, Сам, Кожен, Інший)B1 — The determinative pronouns are the quantifying words 'all/whole, oneself/the very, each/every, other, the same, not a single' — весь·вся·все·всі, сам·сама́·само́·са́мі, ко́жен, і́нший, той са́мий, жо́ден. They all decline and agree like adjectives. Two traps for English speakers: все 'everything' (neuter) vs всі 'everyone' (plural) are different words, and сам 'in person / by oneself' (Я сам це зроби́в) is NOT the reflexive себе́ — Я сам себе́ не розумі́ю uses both at once.
• Цей, Той, Такий, Стільки in UseB1 — A working-level deep dive into the demonstrative family: цей/той fully declined in context (у цьо́му мі́сті, з тим чолові́ком, про ці кни́ги), такий 'such/so' agreeing through its forms, сті́льки + genitive, and the той самий / такий самий 'the same' and не той 'the wrong one' constructions — one small group of words that covers what English spreads across such, so, same, and wrong.
• The Intensive Pronoun СамB2 — Сам / сама́ / саме́ / самі́ is the intensive-determinative pronoun covering three jobs English splits between several words: 'in person / -self' (Дире́ктор сам прийшо́в 'the director came himself'), 'alone / unaided' (Я зроби́в це сам 'I did it myself/alone'), and 'the very / right' (на са́мому верху́ 'at the very top', саме́ той 'that very one'). It AGREES with its noun and declines like a hard adjective (само́го, само́му, сами́м), so it is sharply distinct from the reflexive object себе́ ('oneself' as an argument). The unstressed form са́ме 'exactly, precisely' is a related focus particle.

Indefinite & Negative

• Indefinite Pronouns (Хтось, Щось, Будь-, -небудь, Деякий)A2 — Ukrainian builds 'some-/any-' words from the question pronouns plus a particle, and the particle encodes specificity: -сь for a definite-but-unknown referent (хтось 'someone'), будь- for free choice 'anyone at all' (будь-хто), -небудь for vague 'some/any' (хто-небудь), аби- for dismissive 'just anyone' (абихто). English's flat 'some/any' splits into a whole system here — and будь- and -небудь are written with an obligatory hyphen while -сь, де-, аби- are not.
• Negative Pronouns (Ніхто, Ніщо) and Double NegationA2 — Ukrainian's ні- pronouns — ніхто́ 'no one,' ніщо́ 'nothing,' нія́кий 'no kind of,' нічи́й 'nobody's' — REQUIRE the verb to ALSO carry не: Ніхто́ не прийшо́в 'no one came' (literally 'no one didn't come'). Negatives stack without cancelling (Я ніко́ли ніко́му нічо́го не каза́в is correct and emphatic), the exact opposite of prescriptive English. And a preposition wedges INSIDE the pronoun: ні з ким 'with no one,' ні на що́ 'on nothing.'

Interrogative & Relative

• Interrogative Pronouns (Хто, Що, Який, Чий, Котрий)A1 — Ukrainian asks 'who/what/which/whose' with pronouns that DECLINE: хто 'who' (кого́, кому́, ким), що 'what' (чого́, чому́, чим), and the agreeing який 'what kind', чий 'whose', котрий 'which one' that change ending with their noun and case. Two traps for English speakers: який/чий/котрий are full agreeing adjectives (Яки́м авто́бусом? 'by which bus?'), and хто always takes masculine-singular agreement even about a woman (Хто прийшо́в?, never *прийшла́).
• Relative Pronouns (Який, Що, Хто)A2 — Ukrainian joins clauses with який 'which/who/that' — the main relativizer, which AGREES with its antecedent in gender and number but takes its CASE from its own clause (кни́га, яку́ я чита́ю), so one word carries two grammatical signals at once. The invariant що is the colloquial 'that'; хто and той, хто handle headless relatives. The comma before the relative clause is obligatory, and prepositions sit in front of який (з яко́ю, в яко́му), never stranded as in English.
• Declension of Хто and Що and Their CompoundsB1 — Хто 'who' and що 'what' fully decline — хто/кого́/кому́/кого́(acc=gen)/ким/(на) ко́му and що/чого́/чому́/що/чим/(на) чо́му — and ALL their derivatives inherit these endings: indefinite хтось → кого́сь, де́хто → де́кого, абихто́ → абикого́; negative ніхто́ → ніко́го, ніщо́ → нічо́го. The crucial twist: negatives ніхто́/ніщо́ SPLIT around a preposition, which lands inside the word — ні в ко́го 'to no one', ні з ким 'with no one', ні до чо́го 'to nothing', ні про що 'about nothing'.

Personal

• Personal Pronouns: Overview and DeclensionA1 — Ukrainian personal pronouns — я, ти, він, вона́, воно́, ми, ви, вони́ — decline through all seven cases (я → мене́ → мені́ → мно́ю). Two facts dominate: the third-person forms take a euphonic н- prefix after a preposition (бачу його́ 'I see him' but дивлю́ся на ньо́го 'I look at him'; її́ but до не́ї; їх but з ни́ми), and subject pronouns are usually DROPPED because the verb ending already shows the person.
• Ти vs Ви: Informal and Formal YouA1 — English 'you' splits in two in Ukrainian: ти is singular and informal (family, friends, children, peers, God), while ви is both the plural 'you' and the polite singular for strangers, elders, and officials. The verb takes plural agreement with ви even for one person (Ви ма́єте ра́цію), the capitalized Ви signals respect in letters, and moving from ви to ти (перейти́ на «ти») is a real social step you often propose out loud.
• The N-Prefix on Pronouns After PrepositionsA2 — Every 3rd-person personal pronoun adds an obligatory н- after a preposition. WITHOUT a preposition: його́, її́, їх, йому́, їй, їм. AFTER any preposition, they become ньо́го, не́ї, них, ньо́му, ній (до ньо́го, у не́ї, до них, на ньо́му, на ній). The instrumental forms already begin with н — ним, не́ю, ни́ми — and stay so (з ним, з не́ю, з ни́ми). This is a purely euphonic change with no English analogue; 1st/2nd-person pronouns never take it.
• Using and Dropping Personal PronounsA2 — Ukrainian is a pro-drop language: the subject pronoun is normally OMITTED because the verb ending already shows the person — Чита́ю 'I read', Іде́мо 'we're going', Не зна́ю 'I don't know'. You put я / ти / він back in only for contrast (Я чита́ю, а ти спиш), emphasis, one-word answers (Хто це зробив? — Я), and in the past tense, where the verb marks gender but NOT person and the pronoun returns to keep persons apart. Object pronouns (мене́, тебе́, його́) are never dropped.

Possessive

• Possessive Pronouns (Мій, Твій, Наш, Свій)A1 — Ukrainian possessive pronouns agree with the THING owned, not the owner — мій стіл but моя́ кни́га, and they run through every case (у мої́й кни́зі). The 1st/2nd-person ones (мій, твій, наш, ваш) fully decline; the 3rd-person його́ 'his/its' and її́ 'her' are INVARIABLE, while 'their' has both invariable їх and the declining їхній. And the reflexive свій 'one's own' points back to the subject (Я люблю́ свою́ робо́ту).
• Свій: The Reflexive PossessiveB1 — Свій 'one's own' is the possessive English lacks: it points back to the SUBJECT of the clause, so whenever the owner equals the subject — я, ти, він, ми, anyone — you use свій (declining like мій) instead of мій/твій/його́/її́/наш. Its payoff is third-person disambiguation: Він поцілува́в свою́ дружи́ну 'he kissed his own wife' vs Він поцілува́в його́ дружи́ну 'he kissed another man's wife.' Omitting свій is the single most common English-speaker pronoun error.

Reflexive

• The Reflexive Pronoun СебеA2 — Себе́ 'oneself' is one pronoun that covers myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, themselves — it takes its person from the subject of the clause. It has NO nominative (you can never be the subject of себе́), one set of forms for every person (себе́ in gen/acc, собі́ in dat/loc, собо́ю in instr), and it always points back to whoever is doing the verb: Я ба́чу себе́, Вона́ купи́ла собі́ су́кню, Візьми́ це з собо́ю. Keep it apart from the fused verbal -ся (ми́тися) — себе́ is a separate, stressed, full word used when 'oneself' is a real argument.
• Reciprocal 'Each Other' (Один Одного)B1 — Ukrainian says 'each other' with a two-word frame: a gender-matched оди́н / одна́ / одне́ that points at the group, plus a declining о́дного / о́дну that takes whatever case the verb or preposition demands. The construction inflects internally — оди́н о́дному (dat), оди́н з о́дним (instr), оди́н про о́дного (about each other) — and the preposition wedges between the two halves: оди́н до о́дного, оди́н на о́дного. Keep it apart from reflexive себе́ / -ся, which means 'on oneself', not 'on each other'.

• Ukrainian Pronunciation: OverviewA1 — A map of Ukrainian pronunciation built on four pillars — clear near-unreduced vowels, free meaning-distinguishing stress, hard/soft consonant pairs, and the absence of final devoicing — and the headline news that Ukrainian is far more phonetic than Russian.

Consonants

• Hard and Soft Consonants (Palatalization)A2 — Ukrainian splits many consonants into hard and soft (palatalized) pairs — soft д т з с ц л н дз marked by ь or я є ю ї/і. The labials and р are hard before iotated vowels (hence the apostrophe), and ч ш щ ж are HARD in Ukrainian, unlike Russian.
• Voiced Consonants Stay VoicedA2 — Unlike Russian, Ukrainian does not devoice voiced consonants at the end of a word or before a voiceless one: дуб ends in a real /b/, друг keeps its voiced /ɦ/, сніг and хліб keep final voicing. Devoicing is the loudest Russian-accent giveaway.
• The Sound of Г (/ɦ/)A2 — Ukrainian г is a voiced glottal/pharyngeal fricative /ɦ/ — a breathy, throaty, VOICED 'h' (like the h in 'aha'), never the hard /g/ of 'go.' The hard /g/ is the separate letter ґ. Mastering this one sound transforms a Ukrainian accent.
• The Sound of В and the В→У AlternationB1 — Ukrainian в is often a /w/-like approximant, not English /v/ — at syllable end it vocalizes toward /u̯/ (вовк ≈ 'wowk', був ≈ 'buw'). This ties to the euphonic alternations в↔у and і↔й that smooth clusters and hiatus: у/і after a consonant, в/й after a vowel.
• Consonant Clusters and AssimilationB1 — How Ukrainian consonant clusters actually sound: the soft-assimilation that spreads palatalization leftward, the fused -ться/-шся reflexive endings, the regular cluster shifts in declension — and the headline news that Ukrainian, unlike Russian, barely simplifies clusters at all.
• Doubled (Lengthened) ConsonantsB1 — Ukrainian writes certain long consonants as doubled letters — життя́, знання́, ні́ччю — and they are pronounced genuinely LONG. The doubling is phonemic, mandatory, and clusters predictably in the neuter -я noun class and the soft-feminine instrumental, so you can predict it rather than memorize each word.
• Hard R, Hard Labials, and the Apostrophe SoundB1 — Ukrainian р and the labials б п в м ф stay HARD before я/ю/є/ї — which is exactly why the apostrophe exists: м’ясо is /ˈmjɑso/ (hard м + /j/ + vowel), not a Russian-style palatalized /mʲ/. Final р is hard too (лі́кар, тепе́р). The apostrophe means 'hard consonant, full glide'; importing Russian softening here is a clear accent error.
• The Affricates ДЗ and ДЖB1 — The digraphs дз /d͡z/ and дж /d͡ʒ/ are SINGLE affricate sounds written with two letters — дж like English 'j' in 'jam', дз like the voiced 'ds' in 'kids'. ходжу́ is /xoˈd͡ʒu/ (one sound), джерело́ starts with one /d͡ʒ/, дзвін with one /d͡z/. EXCEPT across a prefix boundary (під-жени́, від-зна́чити), where д and ж/з are two separate sounds.
• Connected Speech: Linking and EuphonyB2 — What happens at word boundaries in fluent Ukrainian: the obligatory в/у and і/й alternation chosen by surrounding sounds (був у шко́лі vs вона́ в о́фісі; брат і сестра́ vs О́ля й Іва́н), the з/із/зі selection, voicing assimilation across words, and the rhythmic clitics же/ж/бо — all while clear vowels and voicing are preserved far more than in Russian.

Intonation

• Ukrainian Intonation and QuestionsA2 — Ukrainian's everyday melody: statements fall, yes/no questions rely on an intonational rise (not inversion or do-support), wh-questions fall with stress on the question word, and the particle чи is a clean optional signpost English speakers can lean on. Moving the rise moves what you are asking about.
• Putting It Together: Reading AloudB1 — The capstone of the pronunciation guide: full sentences read aloud with every rule applied at once — unreduced vowels, voiced finals, breathy г /ɦ/, soft consonants, and the в/у–і/й euphony — so the rules you know in isolation become one smooth habit under real reading pressure.

Stress

• Word Stress in UkrainianA1 — Ukrainian stress is free, mobile, and occasionally meaning-distinguishing (за́мок 'castle' vs замо́к 'lock') — but, unlike Russian, it does not gut the unstressed vowels, so mis-stressing costs you less. Learn stress with every word.
• Stress Patterns in Noun DeclensionB2 — Ukrainian noun stress is mobile: it can shift between stem and ending across cases and number, and OFTEN differs from the Russian cognate. Three patterns — fixed stem-stress (кни́га / кни́ги / кни́зі), fixed end-stress (стіл / стола́ / столи́), and mobile (рука́ but ру́ки; голова́ → го́лову → го́лови). It must be learned per word, and a Russian-trained learner cannot transfer it.

Vowels

• Vowels Keep Their Value (No Akanye)A1 — The flagship rule of a Ukrainian accent: unstressed vowels are not reduced. The letter о stays /o/ everywhere, unlike Russian akanye — drilling full unstressed vowels is the single fastest fix for a native-like accent.
• How О/І and Е/І Sound in AlternationA2 — One of the most audibly Ukrainian features: an о or е raises to і when a syllable closes (кіт but кота́, ніч but но́чі, стіл but стола́). This page drills how the alternation sounds — the і is a full front vowel that softens what precedes it — and why hearing it is both a pronunciation and a morphology win.
• Pronouncing Loanwords and NamesB2 — How Ukrainian adapts foreign words and names to its sound system — the дев’ятка rule that forces и (not і) after the nine consonants д т з с ц ч ш ж р, the rendering of foreign g, h, w and th, and why 'Harvard‘ is Гарвард and ’hotel' is готель.
• Iotation: When Я Є Ю Ї Carry a /j/A2 — The letters я є ю ї do two different jobs: a full /j/ glide word-initially (я́блуко /ˈjabluko/), after a vowel (моя́ /moˈja/), after the apostrophe (м’ясо), and after ь (портьє́ра) — but they merely SOFTEN the preceding consonant directly after one (синя /ˈsɪnʲa/, лю́ди). To read aloud you check the letter before. ї is ALWAYS /ji/.
• Minimal Pairs: Hearing the DifferencesA2 — A drill page of real Ukrainian minimal pairs for the four contrasts English speakers miss most: і vs и (different vowels — сіли 'sat' vs сили 'forces'), г /ɦ/ vs ґ /g/ (гніт 'yoke' vs ґніт 'wick'), soft vs hard consonants (ні́с vs нись, стан vs стань), and voiced finals that Ukrainian keeps voiced (дуб stays /dub/, not 'dup'). Train your ear on pairs that differ by a single sound.
• Dialectal Pronunciation FeaturesC2 — The pronunciation features that let an advanced ear place a speaker — Polissian diphthongs, southwestern vowel qualities and stress — against the southeastern standard that is the production target.

• Yes/No QuestionsA1 — Ukrainian forms yes/no questions with NO do-support and NO inversion: the statement word order is kept exactly, and the question is signalled by rising intonation on the focused word (Ти лю́биш ка́ву? 'do you like coffee?') or by fronting the optional particle чи (Чи ти лю́биш ка́ву?, slightly more formal/clear). Answers are так 'yes' / ні 'no', very often echoing the verb (Прийшо́в? — Прийшо́в 'Did he come? — He did'). Negative questions (Ти не голо́дний? — Ні, не голо́дний 'aren't you hungry? — No, I'm not') answer the polarity of the statement, not the English 'yes/no'.
• Wh-Questions (Хто, Що, Де, Коли, Чому, Як)A1 — Ukrainian wh-questions put the question word FIRST and keep the rest in statement order — no do-support, no inversion: Де ти живе́ш? 'where do you live?', Що ти ро́биш? 'what are you doing?', Чому́ ти пла́чеш? 'why are you crying?'. Pronominal question words DECLINE for their role in the clause, so the case is a grammatical signal English lacks: Кому́ ти телефону́єш? 'who(m) are you calling?' (dative, because телефонува́ти governs dative), З ким ти був? 'who were you with?' (instrumental). Prepositions front with the question word (Зві́дки?, Про що?, З ким?), and the intonation falls rather than rises.
• Tag Questions and Alternative QuestionsA2 — Ukrainian tag questions use a SINGLE invariant tag appended to a statement — пра́вда?, так?, чи не так?, пра́вда ж?, га? (colloquial) — regardless of the sentence's verb or tense, so the English nightmare of matching tags ('you can, can't you?', 'he won't, will he?') collapses to ..., пра́вда? Alternative 'X or Y?' questions are framed with чи between the options (Ка́ва чи чай?, Ти йдеш чи залиша́єшся?), and the doubled чи…чи pairs uncertain alternatives. Echo/clarifying questions repeat the word with a falling-then-rising twist (Що-що? 'what was that?').
• Indirect QuestionsB1 — An indirect (embedded) question is a question tucked inside another clause — 'I don't know WHERE he is', 'Tell me WHEN you'll come'. Ukrainian keeps statement word order in the embedded clause and uses a mandatory comma before it. Wh-questions keep the wh-word (Я не зна́ю, де він; Скажи́, коли́ при́йдеш). Embedded yes/no questions use чи 'whether/if' — NOT якщо́, which is the conditional 'if' (Не зна́ю, чи вона́ вдо́ма). And unlike English reported speech, Ukrainian does NOT backshift the tense: the original tense is kept (Він спита́в, чи я прийду́ 'he asked whether I would come' — future preserved).

• Regional Variation: An OverviewB2 — A high-level map of Ukrainian dialect geography for recognition, not production. Three macro-groups: NORTHERN (Polissian, along the Belarusian border), SOUTH-EASTERN (Kyiv-Poltava-Dnipro — the basis of the literary standard), and SOUTH-WESTERN (Galician, Bukovinian, Hutsul, Transcarpathian). The literary standard rests on the central/south-eastern dialects, so that is what learners study; the most salient regional flavour comes from the south-west (especially Galician around Lviv), and dialects differ mostly in vocabulary and pronunciation rather than core grammar, so mutual intelligibility is high. Surzhyk — the urban Ukrainian-Russian mixed code — is a separate contact phenomenon, not a dialect. The insight: dialects are a comprehension issue, not a barrier, and you should always produce the standard.
• Western (Galician) FeaturesB2 — The salient features of south-western (Galician) Ukrainian — the Lviv variety — for comprehension, not adoption. The hallmark is VOCABULARY borrowed from Polish, German, and Austrian: файний 'nice/cool', ровер 'bicycle', кнайпа 'pub', філіжанка 'cup', цьоця 'auntie', батяр 'rascal', камізелька 'waistcoat', фест 'really/very', нараз 'suddenly'. Plus a more conservative use of polite ви and the vocative, the dative -ові preference, the imperative sandhi дай-те, the conditional був би word order, and the religious greeting Слава Йсу! Galician is recognizable by its lexis rather than by grammar. The insight: standard Ukrainian is what to learn and produce; Galician is what you'll HEAR in Lviv — recognise these regionalisms while continuing to use the standard.
• Surzhyk: Recognition (Not Instruction)B2 — A recognition-only guide to су́ржик — the mixed Ukrainian-Russian vernacular spoken by millions, blending Russian vocabulary, phonetics, and government with Ukrainian morphology. Described neutrally as a real contact phenomenon, with the most common surzhyk items paired against their standard Ukrainian replacements (харашо́→до́бре, спаси́ба→дя́кую, тоже→теж, понима́ю→розумі́ю, оди́н моме́нт→хвили́нку, давай→до зу́стрічі/ході́мо). The point: build passive recognition so mixed forms don't confuse your model, but always produce the standard literary norm — awareness, not imitation, and no judgement of speakers.
• Transcarpathian and Other Southwestern FeaturesC1 — The most divergent Ukrainian speech — the southwestern mountain dialects (Transcarpathian, Hutsul, Lemko, Boyko) — for COMPREHENSION, not production. These varieties preserve archaic vowels (the closed-syllable ô/ÿ from old o/ě, the unrounded ы still distinct from и), carry heavy contact-language borrowing (Hungarian варош 'town', жеб 'pocket', дараб 'piece'; Slovak/Polish ґрулі 'potatoes', кошуля 'shirt'; Romanian items in Hutsul), and keep old morphology: the enclitic past-tense person markers (ходи́в-им, писа́в бым), the май-comparative, dual forms, and divergent stress (Lemko fixed penultimate; Transcarpathian prefix stress на́зад). Some speakers regard Rusyn as a separate language — a debated question. The essential frame: standard Ukrainian is what you learn and produce; these dialects are the far end of the continuum, to recognise, not to imitate.

• Formal vs Informal RegisterB1 — Register in Ukrainian shifts on every level at once. Pronoun (ти informal vs ви formal); vocabulary (балакати/гро́ші/їсти vs розмовля́ти/ко́шти/спожива́ти); greetings (Приві́т/Бува́й vs До́брий день/До поба́чення/Вітаю́); apologies (ви́бач vs перепро́шую); syntax (clipped, particle-rich, elliptical speech with ну/же/та vs full sentences, nominal style and -но/-то passives); and address (па́не/па́ні + name/title vs first name). The insight: these markers move together, so a formal email pairs ви + Шано́вний + full sentences + -но/-то, and mixing them — formal vocabulary with ти, or particles in an official letter — sounds jarring.
• Written vs Spoken UkrainianB2 — Ukrainian has two codes that differ in grammar, not just vocabulary. Spoken Ukrainian drops pronouns, leans on particles (ну, же, от, та, ось), uses short coordinated clauses and explicit clauses with що, and repeats and fills freely. Written Ukrainian nominalizes heavily (вирішення проблеми 'the solving of the problem' instead of a clause), uses the agentless -но/-то passive (Проблему обговорено), packs information into participial phrases, and joins ideas with explicit connectors (отже, однак, таким чином). The insight English speakers miss: the written code restructures the sentence — clauses become nouns and the agent disappears — so 'they discussed the problem' is spoken Вони обговорили проблему but written Проблему було обговорено / Відбулося обговорення проблеми.
• Journalistic and Academic StyleC1 — News and scholarly Ukrainian share a subjectless, passive-leaning architecture. Headlines and reports favour the -но/-то impersonal (Підписано угоду 'an agreement signed', Затримано підозрюваного 'a suspect detained'), agentless attribution (за словами…, як повідомляє…, за даними…), and a fixed set of reporting verbs (зазначив, наголосив, повідомив 'noted/stressed/reported'). Academic prose adds impersonal examination formulas (у статті розглянуто 'the article examines', варто зазначити 'it is worth noting'), the authorial ми (ми вважаємо 'we consider'), hedging (ймовірно, можна припустити), heavy nominalization, and precise connectors (таким чином, отже, відтак). The insight English speakers miss: where English uses a be-passive or an active sentence with a subject, formal Ukrainian reaches for the subjectless -но/-то impersonal — Виявлено порушення 'violations found', Доведено теорему 'the theorem proven'.
• Literary and Poetic FeaturesC1 — The features learners meet in the Ukrainian canon — Shevchenko, Lesya Ukrainka, Franko — and in folk song. The expressive VOCATIVE in apostrophe (Україно!, Світе мій!, Думи мої!), the colloquial/poetic -ть infinitive (співать, кохать), inverted word order for metre (Реве та стогне Дніпр широкий), the archaic preposition од for від, folk diminutives for lyric warmth (соловейко, зіронька, серденько), poetic plurals (очі), epithets and parallelism, the historical present in ballads, and euphony (і/й, з/із/зі). The insight English speakers miss: literary Ukrainian deploys the vocative as direct address to nations and nature, and uses marked archaic forms (од, -ть) that are absent from neutral prose — so reading Shevchenko requires recognizing these as literary devices, not as the everyday norm to imitate.
• Official and Administrative StyleC1 — The language of documents and bureaucracy — діловий стиль. Its hallmarks: heavy nominalization (з мето́ю забезпе́чення 'in order to ensure'), the agentless -но / -то passive (затве́рджено 'has been approved', встано́влено 'has been established'), and a fixed set of prepositional clichés whose government must be memorised — відпові́дно до + genitive 'in accordance with', згі́дно з + instrumental 'according to', у зв’язку́ з + instrumental 'in connection with', на підста́ві + genitive 'on the basis of', з мето́ю + genitive 'with the aim of'. The insight English speakers miss is that administrative Ukrainian is built on these frozen frames plus an impersonal, agentless register — and that it is genre-bound: powerful in a contract, pompous in a chat.
• Folk and Proverbial StyleC1 — The grammar of Ukrainian proverbs, folk songs, and oral tradition — a register with its own rules of generalization and parallelism. The generalized 2nd-person singular addressing 'anyone' (Що посі́єш, те й пожне́ш), the omitted copula with a dash (Сло́во — не горо́бець), the gnomic present for timeless truths, the correlative frames (хто…той, де…там, яки́й…таки́й, як…так), syntactic parallelism and rhyme, ellipsis, the expressive vocative, folk diminutives (соловейко, дівчинонька), archaic and dialectal lexis, and fixed oral formulas (жив-був, за гора́ми, за дола́ми). The insight English speakers miss: proverbial Ukrainian runs on the GENERALIZED 2nd-person addressing everyone, the correlative хто…той / де…там scaffolding, the gnomic present, and the dropped copula — so folk style is a recognisable grammar of generalization, not just old vocabulary; reading it is both comprehension and a stylistic skill.
• Legal and Legislative LanguageC2 — The мова права — the frozen sublanguage of statutes and contracts: extreme nominalization, fixed terminological collocations, agentless passives, and prepositional clichés governing the genitive.
• Scientific and Technical StyleC1 — The register of impersonal demonstration and exact definition. Scientific Ukrainian uses the authorial ми (розгля́немо 'let us consider', отри́маємо 'we obtain'), the impersonal/passive -но/-то (дослі́джено 'it has been studied', доведено́ 'it is proven'), the dash-definition (Фу́нкція — це відпові́дність…), heavy nominalization, measured hedging (ймові́рно, мо́жна припусти́ти 'one may assume'), agentless citation (за да́ними… + genitive), and precise logical connectors (о́тже 'therefore', таки́м чи́ном 'thus', зві́дси виплива́є 'whence it follows', за умо́ви, що… 'provided that'). A register distinct from both everyday speech and administrative style — appropriate for papers, theses, and technical documentation, never for conversation.

• The Simple Sentence and the Missing CopulaA1 — The anatomy of a basic Ukrainian clause — a subject in the nominative plus a predicate — and the one fact that reshapes everything for an English speaker: in the present tense there is NO verb 'to be.' Він студе́нт 'he is a student,' Сього́дні хо́лодно 'it's cold today,' Це ціка́во 'that's interesting' have no copula at all; a dash stands in for 'is' between two nouns (Київ — столи́ця); subject pronouns drop freely (Чита́ю 'I read'); and є is reserved for existence and emphasis, not plain identification.
• Predicate Nouns: Nominative vs InstrumentalB1 — The case of the noun after 'to be' and its relatives flips with the verb form: in the present zero-copula it is NOMINATIVE (Він лі́кар), but with an overt бути in the past, future, or infinitive it goes INSTRUMENTAL (Він був лі́карем, Вона́ бу́де вчи́телькою, хо́чу бу́ти лі́карем). The same instrumental follows ста́ти/става́ти 'become,' працюва́ти 'work as,' залиша́тися 'remain,' назива́тися 'be called,' вважа́тися 'be considered' — so the same role changes case with the verb, a pattern English (which keeps 'a doctor' invariant) has no analogue for.
• Compound and Complex SentencesA2 — How clauses join. A SIMPLE sentence is one clause; a COMPOUND sentence (складносуря́дне) links clauses of equal rank with і, а, але́, або́, та; a COMPLEX sentence (складнопідря́дне) hangs a subordinate clause off a main one with що, щоб, коли́, бо, якщо́, який. The comma before every subordinator and relativizer is OBLIGATORY — unlike English's optional 'that' — and the complement що is never dropped the way English drops it ('I know you're right' must be Я зна́ю, що ти ма́єш рацію).
• Existential and Possessive Sentences (Є, Немає, У мене)A2 — How Ukrainian says 'there is / there are' and 'I have' — both built on the same existential verb є and its negative нема́є. Existence: є + nominative (У па́рку є о́зеро 'there's a lake in the park'); absence: нема́є + GENITIVE (У па́рку нема́є о́зера). Possession is literally 'at-me there-is X': У ме́не є маши́на (nominative), and its negation flips the thing to the genitive: У ме́не нема́є маши́ни. Past and future run on було́ / бу́де and не було́ / не бу́де + genitive (Учо́ра не було́ дощу́).

• When to Write І vs ИA2 — The orthography rules that decide і vs и — a top spelling challenge because in loanwords the two letters become hard to choose. NATIVE words: и never begins a word (use і: і́м’я, і́нший), and і/и are distinct sounds you can usually hear (ри́ба has и, ліс has і). LOANWORDS: the дев’я́тка rule — write и (not і) after the nine consonants д т з с ц ч ш ж р when a consonant follows in common borrowings (систе́ма, дире́ктор, ритм), but і elsewhere and after other consonants (хі́мія, кіно́, гіпо́теза). So 'system' is систе́ма (и) and 'chemistry' is хі́мія (і).
• Apostrophe Spelling RulesA2 — The spelling-side rules for the Ukrainian apostrophe ’: write it before я ю є ї when a HARD consonant + /j/ glide precedes — after the labials б п в м ф, after hard р, and after consonant-final prefixes — but NOT when the consonant is genuinely soft. Omitting or misplacing it is one of the most common Ukrainian spelling errors.
• Soft Sign Spelling RulesB1 — The spelling-side rules for ь: write it after soft д т з с ц л н дз word-finally and before a hard consonant, in the -ський/-цький/-зький suffix, in -еньк-/-оньк- diminutives, in the verb ending -ться, and before о — but NOT after ж ч ш щ, NOT after labials or р at word end, and NOT after a vowel. The Russian instinct to soften final hushers and labials produces the most common wrong soft signs.
• The Дев'ятка Rule and Spelling LoanwordsB1 — The «правило дев’ятки» (rule of nine) is the master rule for и vs і in borrowings: after the nine consonants д т з с ц ч ш ж р, write и (not і) when the next letter is a consonant — систе́ма, ри́тм, дисциплі́на, ци́рк. After every other consonant, and before a vowel, ь, or apostrophe, write і/ї — хі́мія, кіно́, бі́знес, ра́діо. One rule decides the spelling of hundreds of international words.
• Spelling the Prefixes З-/С- and DoublingB2 — Two spelling systems. The prefix is spelled с- before the voiceless к п т ф х (сказа́ти, спита́ти, схова́ти — mnemonic «кафе Птах»), and з- everywhere else (зроби́ти, зекономити), with зі- before clusters (зібра́ти). Consonant doubling marks both a long sound (життя́, ні́ччю) and morpheme boundaries (відда́ти, беззву́чний) — meaningful, not decorative — and unlike Russian, роз-/без-/через- keep з even before voiceless consonants.

• Word Order: Free but Not RandomA1 — Ukrainian word order is flexible because case endings (not position) mark grammatical roles — but the freedom is pragmatic: the neutral order is Subject–Verb–Object, and you front the known topic and end with the new, emphasized information.
• Topic, Focus, and Information StructureB1 — How Ukrainian word order encodes given vs new information: the topic (known, what the sentence is about) comes first, the focus (new, emphasized) comes last and carries the main stress — and because there are no articles, this is also how Ukrainian signals definiteness.
• Placement of Clitics and Particles (Б/Би, Же/Ж, Ся)B2 — Where the unstressed clitic elements go: the conditional б/би and the emphatic же/ж gravitate to second (Wackernagel) position or attach to the focused word; the reflexive -ся is now fused to its verb; and -бо/-но clip onto imperatives. Object pronouns, by contrast, are NOT clitics and move freely.
• Agreement: Subject–Verb, Adjective–NounA2 — How Ukrainian forces words to match: present/future verbs agree with the subject in person and number, but PAST verbs agree in gender and number (not person); and everything modifying a noun — adjectives, possessives, demonstratives — agrees in gender, number, AND case at once.
• Impersonal and Subjectless SentencesB1 — The syntax of sentences with NO nominative subject — where English supplies a dummy 'it/they/you/one', Ukrainian drops the subject entirely and the logical argument (if any) surfaces as a dative or accusative: Темні́є, Ка́жуть, Тре́ба йти, Мені́ хо́лодно, Що роби́ти?
• Relative Clauses (Який, Що, Хто)B1 — How Ukrainian builds 'the house we saw,' 'the woman I spoke with,' 'the city I was born in.' The relativizer який agrees with its antecedent in gender and number but takes its CASE from its role inside the relative clause, so one word points two ways at once; the comma before it is obligatory; prepositions front (з якою, в якому) and are never stranded; the invariant що is the colloquial subject/object option; and той, хто / те, що build headless relatives.
• Comparative and Equative ConstructionsB2 — The syntax of comparison once you have a comparative form: 'than' has three competing renderings (за + accusative, ніж + same case, від + genitive — all 'than me'), the equative 'as…as' runs through такий самий, як and так само…як, the proportional 'the more…the more' is чим/що…тим, and quantified comparison splits between у/в…рази and вдвічі/втричі for MULTIPLES (twice as big) versus на + accusative for ADDITIVE differences (older by two years).
• Ellipsis and Omission in SentencesB2 — Ukrainian routinely leaves out words that English must say: the present-tense copula (Він лі́кар 'he is a doctor'), subject pronouns (Чита́ю 'I'm reading'), and a repeated verb under coordination — where a dash then stands in for the gap (Я люблю́ ка́ву, а він — чай) — so recognising these systematic omissions is essential to both parsing and natural production.
• Emphasis: Word Order, Це, and ParticlesB2 — Ukrainian has no default 'it is X that…' cleft, so it emphasises by other means: fronting the focused word for contrast (Ка́ву я люблю́), the focus-marker са́ме 'precisely' (Са́ме він…), a це-cleft (Це він зроби́в), and the emphatic particles ж/же, таки́, аж, на́віть, і — so emphasis rides on word order plus particles rather than on a cleft frame.
• Types of Subordinate Clause: An OverviewB2 — A map of the Ukrainian subordinate-clause system — complement (що 'that', чи 'whether'), relative (який, що, котрий), and adverbial clauses of time, cause, purpose, condition and concession — showing that every subordinate clause is overtly introduced by a conjunction AND set off by a comma, and that the clause type dictates the verb form (future after коли, past + би after якби, past after щоб with a different subject).
• Apposition and Parenthetical InsertionsB2 — An appositive noun AGREES IN CASE with the noun it renames (мі́сто Ки́їв, but у мі́сті Ки́єві; мій брат Іва́н, but з мої́м бра́том Іва́ном), unlike English's invariant 'of Kyiv'. Quoted titles do NOT agree (у журна́лі «Ки́їв»). Parenthetical stance and connective words (на жаль, зві́сно, ма́буть, по-пе́рше, о́тже) are ALWAYS comma-set — a strict rule — and the dash sets off emphatic appositions. The same word can be a parenthetical (comma-set) or a sentence member (not), and that distinction decides the punctuation.
• Coordination, Lists, and EnumerationB1 — How Ukrainian joins items in a series: і/й before the LAST item (хліб, молоко́ і сир), commas between the rest; the euphonic switch between і and й; the repeated і…і / ні…ні 'both…and' / 'neither…nor'; та as a second 'and'; the adversative а / але́ / проте́; and the iron rule English speakers miss — coordination propagates CASE, so every item in a list sits in the same case (з ма́мою, та́том і сестро́ю — all instrumental).
• Negative Concord in Complex SentencesB2 — Ukrainian stacks any number of negatives, all obligatorily co-occurring with a single не on the verb: Ніхто́ ніко́ли нічо́го ніко́му не каза́в needs every ні-word AND the one не. Prepositions wedge inside the ні-pronoun (ні з ким 'with no one', ні про що 'about nothing', ні за що 'for nothing'). The ні…ні… frame coordinates negated items, ані intensifies, and 'no one to V' is the negated-existence frame нема́ кому́ / ні до кого + infinitive. The litotes не мо́жу не + infinitive ('I can't help but') uses two negatives that DON'T cancel. None of this matches English's one-negative rule.

• Могти (can / be able)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for могти́ 'can, be able' — the workhorse modal of circumstantial possibility and permission. Covers the present мо́жу / мо́жеш / мо́же / мо́жемо / мо́жете / мо́жуть (with the г→ж mutation that runs through the WHOLE present, not just the 1sg), the о/і past міг / могла́ / могло́ / могли́, the perfective змогти́ that supplies the simple future (зможу́, змо́жеш), and the crucial split between могти́ 'can (in the circumstances / be allowed)' and вмі́ти 'know how to (a learned skill)'.
• Давати / Дати (to give)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair дава́ти (imperfective) / да́ти (perfective) 'to give'. The imperfective дава́ти is a regular -ва- present (даю́, дає́ш, дає́…); the perfective да́ти is one of the four ATHEMATIC verbs of Ukrainian, with the irregular set дам, даси́, дасть, дамо́, дасте́, даду́ть that means the FUTURE, not the present. Recipient in the DATIVE (дай мені́), thing given in the ACCUSATIVE (да́ти кни́жку), plus the everyday дай / дава́й imperatives.
• Їсти / З’їсти (to eat)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair ї́сти (imperfective) / з’ї́сти (perfective) 'to eat'. ї́сти is one of the four ATHEMATIC verbs of Ukrainian, with the irregular present їм, їси́, їсть, їмо́, їсте́, їдя́ть; the perfective з’ї́сти (note the apostrophe) follows the same pattern with future meaning (з’їм, з’їси́, з’їсть, з’їдя́ть). Covers the past їв / ї́ла, the imperative їж / ї́жте, and the partitive-genitive object that distinguishes поїв супу 'ate some soup' from з’їв суп 'ate the (whole) soup'.
• Читати / Прочитати (to read)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the model regular aspect pair чита́ти (imperfective) / прочита́ти (perfective) 'to read'. This is the cleanest pair in the language for anchoring the whole aspect system: imperfective чита́ти conjugates as a textbook first-conjugation -ай- verb (чита́ю, чита́єш, чита́є…), and the perfective прочита́ти conjugates identically but means the FUTURE (прочита́ю = 'I will read [it through]', never 'I read'). Covers past чита́в / прочита́в, the synthetic future чита́тиму, the imperative чита́й, and the accusative object.
• Писати / Написати (to write)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair писа́ти (imperfective) / написа́ти (perfective) 'to write'. The present shows the с→ш mutation THROUGHOUT (пишу́, пи́шеш, пи́ше, пи́шемо, пи́шете, пи́шуть) with the stress retracting from the ending after the 1sg; the perfective написа́ти conjugates identically with future meaning (напишу́, напи́шеш). Covers past писа́в / написа́в, the imperative пиши́, the accusative object and dative recipient, and the rich prefix family (записа́ти, переписа́ти, підписа́ти).

Aspect Pair Model

• Купувати / Купити (to buy)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair купува́ти (imperfective) / купи́ти (perfective) 'to buy'. The imperfective купува́ти is a textbook -ува-/-у- verb (купу́ю, купу́єш, купу́є…); the perfective купи́ти is a second-conjugation -и- verb with the labial mutation п→пл in the 1sg куплю́ and 3pl ку́плять (but plain ку́пиш, ку́пить). Object in the ACCUSATIVE (купи́ти хліб), recipient in the DATIVE (купи́ти пода́рунок ма́мі), and the GENITIVE PARTITIVE for 'some' (купи́ти цу́кру).
• Брати участь та інші вирази з брати/датиB1 — A phrasebook of high-frequency light-verb collocations built on бра́ти / взя́ти 'take' and дава́ти / да́ти 'give' — бра́ти у́часть (у + locative) 'take part', бра́ти до ува́ги 'take into account', бра́ти приклад (з + genitive), да́ти ра́ду (+ dative) 'cope with', да́ти зго́ду 'consent', дава́ти зна́ти 'let know', бра́ти сло́во, бра́ти на се́бе. Each idiom comes with its fixed governed case, because here the meaning lives in the whole chunk, not in the literal verb.
• Показувати / Показати (to show)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair пока́зувати (imperfective) / показа́ти (perfective) 'to show'. The imperfective пока́зувати is a regular -ува-/-у- verb (пока́зую, пока́зуєш…); the perfective показа́ти has the consonant mutation з→ж across its whole future (покажу́, пока́жеш, пока́же, пока́жуть). Recipient in the DATIVE (показа́ти дру́гові), thing shown in the ACCUSATIVE (показа́ти фо́то), plus the everyday imperative покажи́.
• Розповідати / Розповісти (to tell / recount)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair розповіда́ти (imperfective) / розповісти́ (perfective) 'to tell, recount'. The imperfective розповіда́ти is a regular -а- verb (розповіда́ю, розповіда́єш…); the perfective розповісти́ conjugates ATHEMATIC-style like да́ти / відповісти́ — розпові́м, розповіси́, розпові́сть, розповімо́, розповісте́, розповідя́ть. Listener in the DATIVE, topic with про + accusative (розповісти́ дру́гові про по́дорож), and the contrast with каза́ти / говори́ти.
• Починати / Почати (to begin)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair почина́ти (imperfective) / поча́ти (perfective) 'to begin, start'. The imperfective почина́ти is a regular -а- verb (почина́ю, почина́єш…); the perfective поча́ти has the irregular present-stem почн- (почну́, почне́ш, почне́, почну́ть). As a PHASE verb it demands an IMPERFECTIVE infinitive (поча́ти чита́ти, never *поча́ти прочита́ти), or an accusative object (поча́ти робо́ту); the reflexive почина́тися / поча́тися means 'begin' intransitively.
• Закінчувати / Закінчити (to finish)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair закі́нчувати / закі́нчити 'to finish'. Covers the full present (закі́нчую, закі́нчуєш…), the gendered past, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future, the imperative, the bare-stem 1sg perfective закі́нчу (not *закі́нчию), and the verb's two grammars: a PHASE verb taking an imperfective infinitive (закі́нчив писа́ти) and a transitive verb taking an accusative object (закі́нчити робо́ту), plus the reflexive закі́нчуватися / закі́нчитися 'come to an end' (Уро́к закі́нчився) and the contrast with переста́ти.
• Зустрічати / Зустріти (to meet)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair зустріча́ти / зустрі́ти 'to meet'. Covers the full present (зустріча́ю, зустріча́єш…), the gendered past, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future (зустрі́ну, зустрі́неш…), the imperative, and the verb's grammars: a transitive accusative object (зустрі́ти дру́га, зустріча́ти госте́й 'welcome guests'), and the reciprocal reflexive зустріча́тися / зустрі́тися з + instrumental 'meet up with / be dating'.
• Допомагати / Допомогти (to help)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair допомага́ти / допомогти́ 'to help'. Covers the full present (допомага́ю, допомага́єш…), the gendered past with the o/i alternation (допомі́г / допомогла́), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future (допоможу́, допомо́жеш… with г→ж), the imperative (допоможи́!), and the verb's defining feature: it governs the DATIVE, not the accusative (допомага́ти ма́мі, дру́гові), plus + infinitive for what you help someone do.
• Дякувати / Подякувати (to thank)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair дя́кувати / подя́кувати 'to thank'. Covers the full present (дя́кую, дя́куєш…), the gendered past, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future, the imperative (дя́куй!), and the verb's defining feature: it governs the DATIVE for the person thanked (дя́кую тобі́, NOT *дя́кую тебе́) and за + accusative for the thing thanked for (дя́кую за допомо́гу). The bare Дя́кую! is the everyday Ukrainian 'thank you'.
• Хотіти vs Бажати vs Воліти — wanting verbsB1 — A comparison reference for the three Ukrainian 'wanting' verbs: everyday хоті́ти 'want' (хо́чу, т→ч, + infinitive / acc / щоб), formal бажа́ти 'wish' (бажа́ю + GENITIVE — бажа́ю у́спіху), and воліти 'prefer' (волі́ю + infinitive). Covers the impersonal хоті́тися + dative (мені́ хо́четься), full paradigms with stress marked, and the case each one governs.
• Просити / Попросити (to ask / request)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair проси́ти (impf) / попроси́ти (pf) 'to ask for, to request'. Present прошу́ (с→ш in the 1sg only) / про́сиш / про́сить / про́симо / про́сите / про́сять, past проси́в / проси́ла, imperative проси́. Government: accusative person + про + accusative thing, OR an infinitive ('ask sb to do'), OR a щоб-clause. Contrasts проси́ти 'request' with пита́ти 'ask a question', and covers the courtesy word Про́шу! 'please / you're welcome / here you are'.
• Питати / Запитати (to ask a question)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair пита́ти (impf) / запита́ти · спита́ти (pf) 'to ask a question, to inquire'. Present пита́ю / пита́єш / пита́є / пита́ємо / пита́єте / пита́ють (fully regular, no mutation), past пита́в / пита́ла, imperative пита́й. Government: accusative person OR в/у + genitive ('ask from sb'), про + accusative topic. Contrasts пита́ти 'inquire' with проси́ти 'request'.
• Відповідати / Відповісти (to answer)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair відповіда́ти (impf) / відповісти́ (pf) 'to answer, to respond'. The imperfective is a regular -а́ти verb; the perfective is ATHEMATIC like да́ти / розповісти́ — відпові́м / відповіси́ / відпові́сть / відповімо́ / відповісте́ / відповідя́ть, past відпові́в / відповіла́. Government: DATIVE person (відповісти́ вчи́телеві) + на + accusative for the question (відповісти́ на запита́ння), and відповіда́ти за + accusative 'to be responsible for'.
• Жити, Бути, Існувати — being and livingB1 — A comparison reference for the Ukrainian verbs of being and living: жи́ти 'live, be alive, reside' (живу́, end-stressed), бу́ти 'be' (present є invariant and usually dropped; past був / була́), існува́ти 'exist' (існу́ю, abstract existence), plus formal-register synonyms ме́шкати / прожива́ти 'reside' and перебува́ти 'be located / stay'. Full paradigms with stress, locative government (жи́ти в Ки́єві, ме́шкати на ву́лиці), and how to choose among them by meaning and register.
• Працювати, Робити, Діяти — working and doingB1 — A comparison-and-conjugation reference for the three verbs English collapses into 'work' and 'do': працюва́ти 'work (have a job / operate)', роби́ти 'do, make (a thing, +acc)', and ді́яти 'act, operate, take effect' (ліки ді́ють). Full present/past/future/imperative tables for each, the governed prepositions (працюва́ти над + instr / на + loc), the bare instrumental for a profession, the л-insertion in роблю́, and where функціонува́ти fits — so you stop saying 'роби́ти робо́ту' when you mean працюва́ти.
• Verb Reference: Відкривати / ВідкритиB1 — Full conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair відкрива́ти (imperfective) / відкри́ти (perfective) 'to open, to discover' — with the crucial відчиня́ти/відчини́ти distinction for physical doors and windows.
• Verb Reference: Зачиняти / ЗачинитиB1 — Full conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair зачиня́ти (imperfective) / зачини́ти (perfective) 'to close, shut' — the verb for doors and windows, with its mobile perfective stress (зачиню́ but зачи́ниш) and the contrast with закрива́ти/закри́ти.
• Verb Reference: Вмикати / УвімкнутиB1 — Full conjugation-and-usage reference for the standard Ukrainian aspect pair вмика́ти (imperfective) / увімкну́ти (perfective) 'to turn on, switch on' — the native forms preferred over the surzhyk включа́ти, with the вимика́ти/ви́мкнути 'turn off' contrast.
• Verb Reference: Запам’ятовувати / Запам’ятатиB1 — Full conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair запам’ято́вувати (imperfective) / запам’ята́ти (perfective) 'to memorize, commit to memory' — with the м’я apostrophe spelling and the contrast with пам’ята́ти 'remember (state)' and зга́дувати/згада́ти 'recall'.
• Verb Reference: Забувати / ЗабутиA2 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair забува́ти / забу́ти (to forget), with its case government and the errors English speakers make.
• Verb Reference: Зустрічатися / ЗустрітисяB1 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the reciprocal reflexive pair зустріча́тися / зустрі́тися (to meet up, to date), with its з + instrumental government.
• Verb Reference: Повертатися / ПовернутисяB1 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the reflexive pair поверта́тися / поверну́тися (to return, come back), with its directional до/в/на government.
• Verb Reference: Відпочивати / ВідпочитиA2 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair відпочива́ти / відпочи́ти (to rest, to take a holiday), with its від + genitive government.
• Verb Reference: Прокидатися / ПрокинутисяA2 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the reflexive pair прокида́тися / проки́нутися (to wake up), contrasted with буди́ти/розбуди́ти and вста́ти.
• Вставати / Встати (to get up / stand up)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for встава́ти / вста́ти 'to get up, to stand up' — the intransitive verb of rising. Covers the imperfective present встаю́ / встає́ш / встає́ / встаємо́ / встає́те / встаю́ть, the gendered past встава́в / встав / вста́ла, both imperfective futures, the perfective simple future вста́ну / вста́неш / вста́не / вста́немо / вста́нете / вста́нуть (note the -н- stem), the morning-routine sequence with прокида́тися 'wake up', and the everyday imperatives Встава́й! and Встань!
• Лягати / Лягти (to lie down)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ляга́ти / лягти́ 'to lie down' — the verb of taking up a horizontal position. Covers the imperfective present ляга́ю / ляга́єш / ляга́є / ляга́ємо / ляга́єте / ляга́ють, the irregular perfective future ля́жу / ля́жеш / ля́же / ля́жемо / ля́жете / ля́жуть (г→ж), the bare-consonant past ліг / лягла́ / лягло́ / лягли́, both imperfective futures, the contrast with лежа́ти 'be lying', the idiom лягти́ спа́ти 'go to bed', and the imperatives Ляга́й! and Ляж!
• Садити / Посадити (to plant / seat)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for сади́ти / посади́ти 'to plant, to seat someone' — the transitive verb of putting something or someone down into place. Covers the imperfective present саджу́ / са́диш / са́дить / са́димо / са́дите / са́дять (д→дж in the 1sg, mobile stress), the perfective future посаджу́ / поса́диш / поса́дить, the gendered past сади́в / посади́в, the accusative object (сади́ти де́рево, посади́ти го́стя), the contrast with intransitive сіда́ти / сі́сти 'sit down', and the imperatives Сади́! and Посади́!
• Будувати / Збудувати (to build)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for будува́ти / збудува́ти 'to build, to construct' — the transitive verb of construction. Covers the -ува-/-у- present будую́ pattern (буду́ю / буду́єш / буду́є / буду́ємо / буду́єте / буду́ють), the perfective future збуду́ю / збуду́єш, the gendered past будува́в / збудува́в, the accusative object (будува́ти дім), the agent in the instrumental, the passive participle збудо́ваний and the impersonal збудо́вано 'has been built', plus the imperatives Будуй! and Збудуй!
• Готувати / Приготувати (to cook / prepare)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for готува́ти / приготува́ти 'to cook, to prepare' — the transitive verb of making food and getting things ready. Covers the -ува-/-у- present готу́ю / готу́єш / готу́є / готу́ємо / готу́єте / готу́ють, the perfective future приготу́ю / приготу́єш, the gendered past готува́в / приготува́в, the accusative object (готува́ти вече́рю), the reflexive готува́тися 'to get oneself ready' with до + genitive (готува́тися до і́спиту), and the imperatives Готуй! and Приготуй!
• Verb Reference: Мити / ПомитиA2 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair ми́ти / поми́ти (to wash), with its accusative government, the reflexive ми́тися, and how it differs from пра́ти (to wash clothes).
• Verb Reference: Прибирати / ПрибратиB1 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair прибира́ти / прибра́ти (to clean / tidy), whose perfective conjugates on the бра- stem like бра́ти, with its case government and common learner errors.
• Verb Reference: Відкладати / ВідкластиB2 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair відклада́ти / відкла́сти (to postpone, to set aside), whose perfective conjugates on the -кладу stem like кла́сти, with its case government and learner errors.
• Verb Reference: Вирішувати / ВирішитиB1 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair вирі́шувати / ви́рішити (to decide, to solve), including the stress shift between the aspects, its accusative and infinitive government, and common learner errors.
• Verb Reference: Змінювати / ЗмінитиB1 — Full stress-marked conjugation and usage of the aspect pair змі́нювати / зміни́ти (to change), including its mobile perfective stress, the reflexive змі́нюватися, accusative government, and common learner errors.
• Перекладати / Перекласти (to translate)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair переклада́ти (impf) / перекла́сти (pf) 'to translate, to interpret'. The imperfective is a textbook -ай- verb (переклада́ю, переклада́єш…), but the perfective conjugates on the suppletive клад-stem of кла́сти (перекладу́, перекладе́ш…, past перекла́в). Government: a direct accusative object plus з + genitive ('from') … на + accusative ('into'): перекла́сти з англі́йської на украї́нську. Covers the homonym 'lay across', the noun пере́клад, the past переклада́в / перекла́в, all three futures, and the imperative.
• Вивчати / Вивчити (to study / learn thoroughly)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair вивча́ти (impf) / ви́вчити (pf) 'to study, to learn thoroughly, to master'. The imperfective is a regular -ай- verb (вивча́ю, вивча́єш…), but the perfective ви́вчити is PREFIX-STRESSED throughout (ви́вчу, ви́вчиш, ви́вчить, ви́вчать) — the stressed ви- prefix is the headline feature. Government: a direct accusative object (вивча́ти украї́нську, ви́вчити вірш 'memorize a poem'). Contrasts вивча́ти 'study (a subject)' with вчи́тися / навчи́тися 'learn (a skill)' and вчи́ти 'teach'. Covers past вивча́в / ви́вчив, all three futures, and the imperative.
• Вітати / Привітати (to greet / congratulate)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair віта́ти (impf) / привіта́ти (pf) 'to greet, to welcome, to congratulate'. Both are regular -ай- verbs (віта́ю, віта́єш…; привіта́ю…); the perfective adds the prefix при-. The defining government is віта́ти КОГОСЬ (accusative person) З + INSTRUMENTAL ('congratulate ON': привіта́ти з днем наро́дження). Covers the standalone Віта́ю! 'congratulations / greetings', the noun привіта́ння, the past віта́в / привіта́в, all three futures, and the imperative.
• Просити, Дякувати, Вибачатися — courtesy verbsA2 — A grouped conjugation-and-government reference for the three core Ukrainian courtesy verbs: проси́ти / попроси́ти 'ask, request' (+ accusative person + про + accusative thing, or an infinitive), дя́кувати / подя́кувати 'thank' (+ DATIVE person + за + accusative), and вибача́тися / ви́бачитися 'apologize' (+ перед + instrumental). One present-past-imperative table per verb, the everyday Про́шу / Дя́кую / Ви́бачте, and the government each verb demands. Standard Ukrainian throughout (дя́кую, не спаси́бі; Ви́бачте / Перепро́шую).
• Verb Reference: Любити / Подобатися / Кохати (to like, to love)A2 — A combined conjugation-and-usage reference for the three Ukrainian verbs of liking and loving — люби́ти (general love/like, + accusative, with the 1sg люблю́), коха́ти (romantic love only, + accusative), and подо́батися (the 'appeal' verb: мені́ подо́бається + dative experiencer + nominative subject). One full table per verb, the case-government contrasts, and the кохати-vs-любити distinction native speakers actually observe.
• Verb Reference: Заробляти / Заробити (to earn)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair заробля́ти (imperfective) / зароби́ти (perfective) 'to earn'. The imperfective заробля́ти is a regular first-conjugation -а́ти verb (заробля́ю, заробля́єш…); the perfective зароби́ти is a second-conjugation -и- verb with the labial mutation б→бл in the 1sg зароблю́ and 3pl заро́блять. Object in the ACCUSATIVE (заробля́ти гро́ші), 'earn (up) for' with на + accusative (зароби́ти на маши́ну), and a clean contrast with плати́ти 'to pay'.
• Verb Reference: Платити / Заплатити (to pay)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair плати́ти (imperfective) / заплати́ти (perfective) 'to pay'. The imperfective плати́ти is a second-conjugation -и- verb with the dental mutation т→ч in the 1sg плачу́ (then пла́тиш, пла́тить…); the perfective заплати́ти adds the prefix за-. Core government: за + ACCUSATIVE for the thing paid for (заплати́ти за ка́ву), DATIVE for the recipient (заплати́ти продавце́ві), and a clean contrast with кошту́вати 'to cost'.
• Verb Reference: Коштувати (to cost)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for кошту́вати 'to cost' — a defective, 3rd-person-dominant verb with no everyday perfective. The thing is the subject (Кни́га кошту́є…), the price goes in the accusative (…сто гри́вень), and the everyday question is Скі́льки це кошту́є? 'How much does it cost?'. Covers the present кошту́є / кошту́ють, the past кошту́вав / кошту́вало, both imperfective futures, the figurative 'to cost (someone dearly)' sense, and the contrast with плати́ти 'to pay'.
• Verb Reference: Відчувати / Відчути (to feel / sense)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair відчува́ти (imperfective) / відчу́ти (perfective) 'to feel, to sense (something)'. The imperfective відчува́ти is a regular -ува-/-у- verb (відчува́ю, відчува́єш…); the perfective відчу́ти marks the moment of sensing (відчу́ю, відчу́єш…, its present-form being the future). Object in the ACCUSATIVE (відчува́ти біль, страх), the construction 'feel that…' with що, and the crucial contrast with почува́тися 'to feel (a state)' + adverb.
• Verb Reference: Сподіватися / Надіятися (to hope)B1 — Conjugation-and-usage reference for the two Ukrainian 'hope' verbs: neutral сподіва́тися (сподіва́юся) and colloquial наді́ятися (наді́юся). Both are imperfective synonyms — NOT an aspect pair. Covers full present, gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative, the government сподіва́тися НА + accusative / сподіва́тися, що…, and the stylistic split between the two verbs.
• Verb Reference: Турбуватися / Хвилюватися (to worry)B1 — Conjugation-and-usage reference for the two Ukrainian 'worry' verbs: турбува́тися (турбу́юся) and хвилюва́тися (хвилю́юся). Both are imperfective synonyms — NOT an aspect pair. Covers full present, gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative including the everyday Не хвилю́йся! 'don't worry!', the government про / за + accusative, and the inceptive perfectives захвилюва́тися / стурбува́тися.
• Verb Reference: Намагатися / Спробувати (to try)B1 — Conjugation-and-usage reference for the two Ukrainian 'try' verbs: imperfective намага́тися (намага́юся, 'try / strive', + infinitive) and perfective спро́бувати (спро́бую, 'give it a try', + infinitive or + genitive 'taste'). Covers full present, gendered past, both imperfective futures, the perfective simple future, the imperative спро́буй, the contrast with стара́тися, and the infinitive complement both verbs take.
• Verb Reference: Дозволяти / Дозволити (to allow)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair дозволя́ти / дозво́лити 'to allow, to permit'. Covers the full imperfective present (дозволя́ю), the perfective simple future (дозво́лю, дозво́лиш… with fixed stem stress), the gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative дозво́ль, and the verb's defining government: DATIVE person + infinitive (дозво́лити ді́тям гуля́ти), the polite Дозво́льте…, and the impersonal -но Це дозво́лено.
• Verb Reference: Забороняти / Заборонити (to forbid)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair забороня́ти / заборони́ти 'to forbid, to ban'. Covers the full imperfective present (забороня́ю), the perfective simple future with its MOBILE stress (забороню́ → заборо́ниш), the gendered past (заборони́в), both imperfective futures, the imperative, the famous impersonal -но signs Курити заборонено / Вхід заборонено, and the government: DATIVE person + infinitive.
• Verb Reference: Пропонувати / Запропонувати (to offer / propose)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair пропонува́ти (impf) / запропонува́ти (pf) 'to offer, to propose'. Present пропону́ю / пропону́єш / пропону́є / пропону́ємо / пропону́єте / пропону́ють, past пропонува́в / пропонува́ла. Government: DATIVE person + ACCUSATIVE thing, or + infinitive ('offer/suggest doing'). Covers the noun пропози́ція and the -ува-/-ова- present alternation.
• Verb Reference: Обіцяти / Пообіцяти (to promise)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the pair обіця́ти (impf, often biaspectual) / пообіця́ти (pf) 'to promise'. Present обіця́ю / обіця́єш / обіця́є / обіця́ємо / обіця́єте / обіця́ють, past обіця́в / обіця́ла. Government: DATIVE person + ACCUSATIVE thing, or + infinitive, or + що́-clause. Covers the noun обіця́нка 'promise' and the biaspectual tendency of plain обіця́ти.
• Verb Reference: Радити / Порадити (to advise)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair ра́дити (impf) / пора́дити (pf) 'to advise, recommend'. Present ра́джу (д→дж in the 1sg) / ра́диш / ра́дить / ра́димо / ра́дите / ра́дять, past ра́див / ра́дила, imperative радь. Government: DATIVE person + infinitive ('advise sb to do'). Covers the reflexive ра́дитися 'consult' (з + instrumental), the noun пора́да 'advice', and the contrast with рекомендува́ти.
• Verb Reference: Скаржитися / Поскаржитися (to complain)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive pair ска́ржитися (impf) / поска́ржитися (pf) 'to complain'. Present ска́ржуся / ска́ржишся / ска́ржиться / ска́ржимося / ска́ржитеся / ска́ржаться, past ска́ржився / ска́ржилася. Government: на + ACCUSATIVE for what you complain about, DATIVE for the person you complain to. Covers the noun ска́рга and the inherent -ся.
• Verb Reference: Цікавити / Зацікавити (to interest)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair ціка́вити (impf) / заціка́вити (pf) 'to interest, to intrigue'. Present ціка́влю (в→вл in the 1sg) / ціка́виш / ціка́вить / ціка́вимо / ціка́вите / ціка́влять, past ціка́вив / ціка́вила. Government: the THING interests the PERSON (accusative experiencer): мене́ ціка́вить… Contrasts with the reflexive ціка́витися + instrumental 'to be interested in'.
• Відправляти / Відправити (to send)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair відправля́ти (imperfective) / відпра́вити (perfective) 'to send, dispatch'. The imperfective is a regular -я- first-conjugation verb (відправля́ю, відправля́єш…); the perfective відпра́вити is a second-conjugation -и- verb with the labial mutation в→вл in the 1sg відпра́влю and 3pl відпра́влять (but plain відпра́виш, відпра́вить). The thing sent goes in the ACCUSATIVE, the recipient in the DATIVE: відпра́вити лист дру́гові.
• Отримувати / Отримати (to receive / get)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair отри́мувати (imperfective) / отри́мати (perfective) 'to receive, get'. The imperfective is a regular -ува-/-у- verb (отри́мую, отри́муєш…); the perfective отри́мати is a regular first-conjugation -а- verb (отри́маю, отри́маєш…) with NO consonant mutation. The thing received goes in the ACCUSATIVE (отри́мати лист, зарпла́ту). This is the standard Ukrainian verb — avoid the russism получи́ти.
• Шукати / Знайти (to look for / find)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the SUPPLETIVE aspect pair шука́ти (imperfective) 'to look for, search' / знайти́ (perfective) 'to find' — two unrelated roots that work as a single pair. шука́ти is a regular -а- verb (шука́ю, шука́єш…); знайти́ is irregular, with future знайду́, зна́йдеш… and the suppletive past знайшо́в / знайшла́. Government: шука́ти + ACCUSATIVE for concrete things (шука́ти робо́ту) but + GENITIVE for abstract ones (шука́ти пра́вди).
• Губити / Загубити (to lose)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair губи́ти (imperfective) / загуби́ти (perfective) 'to lose (an object)'. Both are second-conjugation -и- verbs with the labial mutation б→бл in the 1sg гублю́ / загублю́ and 3pl гу́блять / загу́блять, and MOBILE stress (гублю́ but гу́биш). The thing lost goes in the ACCUSATIVE (загуби́ти ключі́). Adding -ся flips the meaning to 'get lost' (загуби́тися). Contrast програва́ти 'lose a game' and втрача́ти 'lose (abstract)'.
• Вигравати / Виграти (to win)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair вигра́вати (imperfective) / ви́грати (perfective) 'to win'. The imperfective is a -ва- verb that drops the suffix in the present (виграю́, виграє́ш…, end-stressed, like дава́ти → даю́); the perfective ви́грати is PREFIX-STRESSED throughout (ви́граю, ви́граєш…), so the two futures are spelled almost alike but differ in stress. Government: ви́грати + ACCUSATIVE of the prize/match (ви́грати матч) or в/у + GENITIVE of the opponent.
• Verb Reference: Продовжувати / Продовжити (to continue)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair продо́вжувати / продо́вжити 'to continue, carry on'. Covers the full present (продо́вжую, продо́вжуєш…), the gendered past, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future (продо́вжу, продо́вжиш…, stem-stressed throughout), the imperative, and the verb's two faces: a PHASE verb that takes an IMPERFECTIVE infinitive (продо́вжувати чита́ти 'keep reading') and a transitive verb that takes the ACCUSATIVE (продо́вжити до́говір 'extend a contract'), plus the intransitive reflexive продо́вжуватися 'go on'.
• Verb Reference: Переставати / Перестати (to stop doing)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair перестава́ти / переста́ти 'to stop doing, cease'. Covers the end-stressed дава́ти-type present (перестаю́, перестає́ш…), the gendered past (перестава́в / переста́в), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future (переста́ну, переста́неш…), the imperative (переста́нь!), and the verb's defining rule: as a PHASE verb it requires an IMPERFECTIVE infinitive (переста́ти кури́ти 'quit smoking'), and it is intransitive — contrast зупини́тися 'stop moving'.
• Verb Reference: Зупинятися / Зупинитися (to stop / halt)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive aspect pair зупиня́тися / зупини́тися 'to come to a stop, halt'. Covers the full present (зупиня́юся, зупиня́єшся…), the gendered past (зупиня́вся / зупини́вся), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future with its MOBILE stress (зупиню́ся but зупи́нишся, зупи́ниться…), the imperative, the non-reflexive transitive partner зупиня́ти / зупини́ти 'to stop something', and the government with бі́ля / на + cases.
• Verb Reference: Запрошувати / Запросити (to invite)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair запро́шувати / запроси́ти 'to invite, to ask over'. Covers the full present (запро́шую, запро́шуєш…), the gendered past (запро́шував / запроси́в), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future with its 1sg с→ш mutation (запрошу́ but запро́сиш, запро́сить…), the imperative, the noun запро́шення, and the verb's government: accusative person + на + accusative event (запроси́ти дру́га на вече́рю) or + infinitive.
• Verb Reference: Домовлятися / Домовитися (to arrange / agree)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive aspect pair домовля́тися / домо́витися 'to come to an agreement, to arrange'. Covers the full present (домовля́юся, домовля́єшся…), the gendered past (домовля́вся / домо́вився), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future with its 1sg в→вл mutation (домо́влюся but домо́вишся, домо́виться…), the imperative, the reciprocal sense, and the verb's government: з + instrumental ('with whom') + про + accusative ('about what').
• Verb Reference: Переконувати / Переконати (to convince)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for переко́нувати / перекона́ти 'to convince, to persuade' — the verb of changing someone's mind. Covers the root-stressed imperfective present переко́ную / переко́нуєш, the suffix-stressed perfective future перекона́ю / перекона́єш, the gendered past переко́нував / перекона́в, the three governments (accusative person + у + locative 'convince of', + щоб/що-clause, + infinitive), the reflexive переконатися 'to become convinced', the adjective переко́наний, and the imperatives Переконай! and Переко́нуй!
• Verb Reference: Розраховувати / Розрахувати (to count on / calculate)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for розрахо́вувати / розрахува́ти 'to count on, to rely on; to calculate' — the verb that spans both 'I'm counting on you' and 'I'll work out the figures'. Covers the present розрахо́вую / розрахо́вуєш, the perfective future розраху́ю / розраху́єш, the gendered past розрахо́вував / розрахува́в, the key government розрахо́вувати НА + accusative ('count on'), the 'calculate' + accusative use, the reflexive розрахува́тися 'to settle up / pay', the contrast with сподіва́тися, and the imperatives Розрахуй! and Розрахо́вуй!
• Verb Reference: Звертатися / Звернутися (to turn to / address)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for зверта́тися / зверну́тися 'to turn to, to address, to appeal to' — the reflexive verb of approaching someone with a request. Covers the present зверта́юся / зверта́єшся, the perfective future зверну́ся / зве́рнешся, the gendered past зверта́вся / зверну́вся, the core government до + genitive ('turn to': звернутися до лікаря), the з + instrumental of the request, the formal register, the noun зве́рнення, and the imperatives Звернися! and Звертайся!
• Verb Reference: Готуватися / Підготуватися (to prepare oneself)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for готува́тися / підготува́тися 'to prepare oneself, to get ready' — the reflexive verb of getting yourself set for an exam, a trip, or winter. Covers the present готу́юся / готу́єшся, the perfective future підготу́юся / підготу́єшся, the gendered past готува́вся / підготува́вся, the core government до + genitive (готуватися до іспиту 'prepare for an exam'), the contrast with non-reflexive готувати 'cook/prepare', and the imperatives Готуйся! and Підготуйся!
• Verb Reference: Вчити / Навчати (to teach)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for вчи́ти / навча́ти 'to teach' — and the second life of вчи́ти as 'to study, to memorise'. Covers the mobile-stress present вчу́ / вчиш / вчить, the навча́ти present навча́ю / навча́єш, the gendered past вчи́в / навча́в, the complex government (вчи́ти/навча́ти когось ACCUSATIVE чого́сь GENITIVE — 'teach someone something'), the вчи́ти ві́рш 'memorise a poem' use, the contrast with вчи́тися 'to learn', and the imperatives Вчи! and Навчай!
• Verb Reference: Спілкуватися (to communicate / socialize)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for спілкува́тися 'to communicate, interact, socialize' — an inherently reflexive -ова/-ува verb that governs з + instrumental ('with'). Covers the present (спілку́юся / спілку́єшся), the gendered past спілкува́вся / спілкува́лася, all three futures with the perfective поспілкува́тися, the imperative, the noun спілкува́ння, and the difference between спілкува́тися (interact with people) and розмовля́ти / говори́ти (talk, use a language).
• Verb Reference: Вважати (to consider / think / regard)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for вважа́ти 'to consider, to think, to regard, to deem' — a regular first-conjugation verb that takes a що-clause for opinions (Я вважа́ю, що…) or the double-object pattern accusative + INSTRUMENTAL ('consider X to be Y': вважа́ти його́ дру́гом). Covers the present вважа́ю / вважа́єш, the past вважа́в / вважа́ла, all three futures, the imperative, and the difference between вважа́ти (judge/regard) and ду́мати / гада́ти (think, mull).
• Verb Reference: Залежати / Належати (to depend / belong)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for two stative second-conjugation verbs: зале́жати 'to depend' (зале́жу, зале́жиш…) which governs ВІД + genitive (зале́жати від обста́вин), and нале́жати 'to belong' (нале́жу, нале́жиш…) which takes the DATIVE for ownership (кни́га нале́жить мені́) or до + genitive for membership (нале́жати до кома́нди). Both are imperfective statives with no everyday perfective. Covers present, past, the rare imperative, and the case traps English speakers fall into.
• Verb Reference: Відбуватися / Відбутися (to take place / happen)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair відбува́тися (impf.) / відбу́тися (pf.) 'to take place, to be held, to occur' — used for organised, scheduled events. Predominantly 3rd person: Зу́стріч відбула́ся 'the meeting took place', Конце́рт відбу́деться в субо́ту 'the concert will be held on Saturday'. Covers the key 3rd-person forms (відбува́ється / відбу́деться), the gendered past відбу́вся / відбула́ся, the full paradigm, and the contrast with трапля́тися / ста́тися 'happen by chance'.
• Verb Reference: Траплятися / Статися (to happen / occur by chance)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair трапля́тися (impf.) / ста́тися (pf.) 'to happen, to occur (by chance)' — used for unplanned events that befall people. Predominantly 3rd person / impersonal: Що ста́лося? 'What happened?', Зі мно́ю щось ста́лося 'Something happened to me'. Covers the key 3rd-person forms (трапля́ється / ста́неться), the gendered past ста́вся / ста́лася / ста́лося, the affected person in з + instrumental, and the contrast with відбува́тися 'take place (scheduled)'.
• Verb Reference: Відвідувати / Відвідати (to visit)B1 — Full conjugation and usage of the aspect pair відвідувати / відвідати 'to visit' — present, past, both futures, imperative, and the accusative it governs.
• Закривати / Закрити (to close / shut)A2 — Full stress-marked conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair закрива́ти (imperfective) / закри́ти (perfective) 'to close, shut' — the verb for books, eyes, containers, accounts and abstractions, with root-stable stress throughout, the reflexive закрива́тися, the participle закри́тий and the -но form Закри́то, contrasted with зачиня́ти/зачини́ти for doors and відкрива́ти/відкри́ти for opening.
• Verb Reference: Показувати / Розповідати / Пояснювати (explaining)B1 — Reference for the three core 'explaining' aspect pairs — пока́зувати / показа́ти 'show', розповіда́ти / розповісти́ 'tell, recount', поясню́вати / поясни́ти 'explain'. All three share the same government: a DATIVE recipient (показа́ти кому́сь, розповісти́ кому́сь, поясни́ти кому́сь) plus an accusative thing, про + accusative topic, or a що / як clause. One compact conjugation table per verb, with the з→ж mutation in покажу́, the athematic future розпові́м / розпові́сть / розповідя́ть, and the regular поясню́ / поя́сниш. Cross-links the dative-recipient pattern and the aspect-in-future system.

Essential Irregular

• Бути (to be)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for бу́ти 'to be' — the most important irregular verb in Ukrainian. The present is normally OMITTED (є survives only for existence, possession у ме́не є, and emphasis); the past is gendered був / була́ / було́ / були́; and бу́ду / бу́деш / бу́де / бу́демо / бу́дете / бу́дуть is both the verb's own future and the universal future auxiliary. Predicate nouns are NOMINATIVE in the present but INSTRUMENTAL in the past, future and infinitive.
• Мати (to have)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ма́ти 'to have' — present ма́ю / ма́єш / ма́є / ма́ємо / ма́єте / ма́ють + ACCUSATIVE object, past мав / ма́ла / ма́ло / ма́ли, future both ways (бу́ду ма́ти and synthetic ма́тиму). Covers the rivalry with у ме́не є, the negation нема́є + GENITIVE, obligation ма́ти + infinitive, and the idioms ма́ти ра́цію 'be right', ма́ти на ува́зі 'mean', не ма́є значе́ння.
• Хотіти (to want)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for хоті́ти 'to want' — present хо́чу / хо́чеш / хо́че / хо́чемо / хо́чете / хо́чуть (т→ч mutation throughout), past хоті́в / хоті́ла / хоті́ло / хоті́ли, future both ways (бу́ду хоті́ти and хоті́тиму). Covers хоті́ти + infinitive (same subject), the crucial Хо́чу, щоб ти… (щоб + past, when subjects differ), the perfective захоті́ти 'come to want', and the impersonal мені́ хо́четься + dative.
• Verb Reference: Давати / Брати (give vs take)A1 — A paired give/take reference contrasting дава́ти / да́ти 'give' (+ DATIVE recipient + ACCUSATIVE thing) with бра́ти / взя́ти 'take' (+ ACCUSATIVE thing, source in у/в + GENITIVE). Summarises the key forms of each pair — present (даю́, беру́), perfective future (athematic дам / suppletive візьму́), past, and the everyday Дай! / Візьми! imperatives — and pins down the directional split: дава́ти sends a thing TO someone (dative), бра́ти takes a thing FROM someone (у/в + genitive). Full single-verb paradigms live on the дава́ти / да́ти and бра́ти / взя́ти pages, which this contrast cross-links.
• Verb Reference: Є / Немає (there is / there isn't)A1 — The existential є ('there is') — the only surviving present of бути — and its negation немає / нема ('there isn't') + genitive, including the possession pattern У мене є + nominative / У мене немає + genitive, with past було and future буде.

First Conjugation

• Працювати (to work)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for працюва́ти 'to work' — the model verb of the huge, productive -юва-/-ува- class. The -юва- collapses to -ю- in the present (працю́ю, працю́єш, працю́є…), the past is regular працюва́в / працюва́ла, and the verb governs над + instrumental ('work on a problem') and на + locative ('work at a place'). Covers all three futures, the imperative, and the perfective попрацюва́ти.
• Жити (to live)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for жи́ти 'to live' — a first-conjugation verb with an end-stressed present (живу́, живе́ш, живе́…) and a stem жив- that the infinitive's -ти hides. Covers the gendered past (жив / жила́ / жило́ / жили́, with the stress trap жила́), the locative government of residence (жи́ти в Ки́єві, жи́ти на ву́лиці), all three futures, the imperative живи́, and the perfective прожи́ти 'live through / spend (a span of life).'
• Знати (to know)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for зна́ти 'to know' — the perfectly regular vowel-stem first-conjugation verb (зна́ю, зна́єш, зна́є…). It covers knowing FACTS, knowing PEOPLE, and a що-clause, and must be kept apart from умі́ти 'to know how / be able' for skills. зна́ти is imperfectiva tantum: the perfectives узна́ти / дізна́тися mean 'find out, come to know,' a different event. Includes the past знав / зна́ла, all three futures, the imperative знай, and the case government (direct accusative object).
• Думати (to think)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ду́мати 'to think' — a perfectly regular vowel-stem first-conjugation verb (ду́маю, ду́маєш, ду́має…). It governs про + accusative ('think about someone': ду́маю про те́бе) and над + instrumental ('ponder, work through': ду́маю над зада́чею), and takes a що-clause for opinions ('think that…'). Covers the past ду́мав / ду́мала, all three futures, the imperative ду́май, the perfective поду́мати, and the key question Як ти ду́маєш? 'What do you think?'
• Розуміти (to understand)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for розумі́ти 'to understand' — an -і- stem first-conjugation verb that takes -ю in the present (розумі́ю, розумі́єш, розумі́є…). It governs a direct accusative object (Я тебе́ розумі́ю), a що-clause, and — in the reflexive розумі́тися на + locative — 'be knowledgeable about.' The perfective зрозумі́ти / зрозумі́ю marks the moment of getting it. Covers the past розумі́в / розумі́ла, all three futures, the imperative розумі́й, and the everyday Я розумі́ю / Не розумі́ю.
• Брати / Взяти (to take)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the suppletive aspect pair бра́ти / взя́ти 'to take'. The imperfective бра́ти builds its present on a hidden бер- stem (беру́, бере́ш, бере́…), while the perfective взя́ти supplies a completely different future (візьму́, ві́зьмеш…). Covers the gendered past (брав / брала́ … узя́в / взяла́), both imperfective futures, the imperative (бери́ / візьми́), case government (accusative object), and the high-frequency idioms бра́ти у́часть 'take part' and взя́ти себе́ в ру́ки 'pull oneself together'.
• Чекати (to wait)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for чека́ти 'to wait (for)' — a perfectly regular first-conjugation -а- verb (чека́ю, чека́єш, чека́є…) whose only real difficulty is its DOUBLE government: you wait чека́ти на по́їзд (на + accusative) or чека́ти по́їзда (bare genitive), with the на-version now dominant in speech. Covers the gendered past (чека́в / чека́ла), both imperfective futures, the perfective partners зачека́ти / почека́ти ('wait a bit'), the everyday imperative Зачека́й! 'wait!', and the synonyms жда́ти / дожида́ти.
• Пити / Випити (to drink)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair пи́ти / ви́пити 'to drink'. Covers the apostrophe-laden present (п’ю, п’єш, п’є, п’ємо́, п’єте́, п’ють), the gendered past (пив / пила́), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future ви́п’ю, the imperative пий / пи́йте, and the verb's defining choice of object case: ACCUSATIVE for the whole thing (ви́пив во́ду 'drank the water') vs PARTITIVE GENITIVE for some of it (ви́пив води́ 'drank some water'). The apostrophe in п’ю is the central spelling trap.
• Співати / Заспівати (to sing)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair співа́ти / заспіва́ти 'to sing'. Covers the regular present (співа́ю, співа́єш…), the gendered past (співа́в / співа́ла), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future заспіва́ю, the imperative співа́й / заспіва́й and the hortative заспіва́ймо! 'let's sing!'. Explains the verb's case government — bare ACCUSATIVE for the song (співа́ти пі́сню) — and the meaning of the inceptive prefix за- ('start singing'), set against the resultative проспіва́ти 'sing through to the end'.
• Грати (to play)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair гра́ти / зігра́ти 'to play'. Covers the regular present (гра́ю, гра́єш…), the gendered past (грав / гра́ла), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future зігра́ю, and the imperative грай / зіграй. The headline is government: гра́ти В/У + accusative for games and sports (гра́ти у футбо́л, гра́ти в ша́хи) but гра́ти НА + locative for musical instruments (гра́ти на гіта́рі, гра́ти на піані́но) — plus гра́ти роль 'play a role' with a bare accusative.
• Слухати / Послухати (to listen)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair слу́хати / послу́хати 'to listen'. Covers the regular present (слу́хаю, слу́хаєш…), the gendered past (слу́хав / слу́хала), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future послу́хаю, and the imperative Слу́хай!. The headline is government: слу́хати takes a BARE ACCUSATIVE directly (слу́хати му́зику — there is no 'to'!), unlike English 'listen TO'. Contrasts слу́хати (active, voluntary) with чу́ти 'hear' (involuntary), and the reflexive слу́хатися + genitive 'to obey'.
• Verb Reference: Чути / Почути (to hear)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair чу́ти / почу́ти 'to hear'. Covers the full present (чу́ю, чу́єш, чу́є…), the gendered past (чув / чу́ла), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future, the imperative (чуй! / чу́йте!), and the key contrast English speakers miss: чу́ти 'hear' (involuntary perception) vs слу́хати 'listen' (deliberate attention). The object stands in the accusative (чу́ти му́зику, го́лос).
• Verb Reference: Малювати / Намалювати (to draw / paint)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair малюва́ти / намалюва́ти 'to draw, to paint'. Covers the -ува- class present (малю́ю, малю́єш…), the gendered past (малюва́в / намалюва́в), both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future, the imperative (малю́й! / намалю́й!), the -ова-/-юва- → -у-/-ю- present shift it shares with працювати, and the noun малю́нок 'drawing'. The object stands in the accusative (малюва́ти карти́ну).
• Verb Reference: Танцювати (to dance)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for танцюва́ти 'to dance' — a -юва- class imperfective. Covers the full present (танцю́ю, танцю́єш…), the gendered past (танцюва́в / танцюва́ла), both imperfective futures, the imperative (танцю́й!), and the -юва- → -ю- present shift it shares with малювати and працювати. Notes the partner construction з + instrumental (танцюва́ти з дру́гом), the perfective потанцюва́ти 'have a dance', and the noun та́нець (fleeting е: gen. танцю́).
• Verb Reference: Подорожувати (to travel)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for подорожува́ти 'to travel' — a -юва- class imperfective. Covers the full present (подорожу́ю, подорожу́єш…), the gendered past (подорожува́в), both imperfective futures, the imperative (подорожу́й!), and the verb's two government patterns: the bare instrumental for the means (подорожува́ти по́їздом) and по + locative for the territory covered (подорожува́ти Украї́ною / по Украї́ні). Notes the noun по́дорож (instr. по́дорожжю, with the doubled ж).
• Verb Reference: Снідати / Поснідати (to have breakfast)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for сні́дати / посні́дати 'to have breakfast' — a regular first-conjugation meal verb with fixed first-syllable stress. Covers the imperfective present сні́даю / сні́даєш, the perfective future посні́даю, the gendered past сні́дав / сні́дала, the instrumental of what you eat (сні́дати ка́шею), the noun сніда́нок (fleeting о → сніда́нку), and its place in the meal trio сні́дати / обі́дати / вече́ряти.
• Verb Reference: Обідати / Вечеряти (to have lunch / dinner)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the two meal verbs обі́дати 'to have lunch' and вече́ряти 'to have dinner / supper' — both regular first-conjugation verbs with fixed stress and the perfectives пообі́дати / повече́ряти. Covers their parallel conjugations, the instrumental of the dish (вече́ряти су́пом), the nouns обі́д and вече́ря, and their place in the meal trio alongside сні́дати.
• Verb Reference: Красти / Вкрасти (to steal)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for кра́сти / вкра́сти (укра́сти) 'to steal' — a first-conjugation verb of the клас-/крад- type with a tricky mixed-stress present (краду́, but кра́деш / кра́де / кра́дуть). Covers the gendered past крав / кра́ла, the perfective future вкраду́, the imperative кради́, the impersonal Вкра́дено гаманець, the government accusative thing + в / у + genitive victim (вкра́сти гро́ші в ко́гось), and the contrast with грабува́ти 'to rob'.
• Verb Reference: Ламати / Зламати (to break)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for лама́ти / злама́ти 'to break, to snap, to smash' — a regular first-conjugation verb that takes an accusative object. Covers the present лама́ю / лама́єш / лама́є / лама́ємо / лама́єте / лама́ють, the perfective future злама́ю, the past лама́в / злама́в, both imperfective futures, the reflexive ламатися / зламатися 'break (intransitive)' (Маши́на злама́лася), the participle зла́маний, the idiom лама́ти го́лову 'rack one's brains', and the transitive-vs-reflexive split English hides.
• Verb Reference: Вмирати / Померти (to die)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for вмира́ти (умира́ти) / поме́рти 'to die' — an aspect pair with a bare-consonant past (поме́р, not *померв) and the root alternation мира́ ↔ мер. Covers the suffix-stressed perfective future помру́ / помре́ш, the imperfective present вмира́ю, the від + genitive of cause (поме́рти від хвороби), the в/у spelling alternation вмира́ти ↔ умира́ти, and the contrast with убива́ти / вби́ти 'to kill'.
• Verb Reference: Цілувати / Поцілувати (to kiss)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for цілува́ти / поцілува́ти 'to kiss' — a transitive -ува- verb (present цілу́ю) taking an accusative object. Covers the -ува- → -у- present цілу́ю / цілу́єш, the perfective future поцілу́ю, the gendered past цілува́в / поцілува́ла, the accusative object (поцілува́ти дити́ну), the reciprocal reflexive цілува́тися 'to kiss (each other)', and the свій 'one's own' in поцілува́ти свою́ дружи́ну.
• Verb Reference: Жартувати (to joke)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for жартува́ти (impf) / пожартува́ти (pf) 'to joke, kid, make fun'. Present жарту́ю / жарту́єш / жарту́є / жарту́ємо / жарту́єте / жарту́ють — the -ува-→-у- present shift — past жартува́в / жартува́ла. Government: з + GENITIVE for 'make fun of / joke about someone'. Covers Ти жарту́єш? 'are you kidding?' and the noun жарт.
• Гуляти (to stroll / hang out)A2 — Full stress-marked conjugation-and-usage reference for гуля́ти 'to stroll, take a walk, hang out' — a fully regular first-conjugation verb. Covers the present гуля́ю / гуля́єш…, the past гуля́в / гуля́ла, both imperfective futures and the perfective погуля́ти, the government по + locative (place strolled in) and з + instrumental (company), the contrast with ходи́ти / іти́, the noun прогу́лянка and the imperative Гуля́й!.
• Verb Reference: Воліти (to prefer)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for волі́ти 'to prefer, would rather' — an elevated, bookish verb with no perfective partner (imperfectiva tantum). Present волі́ю / волі́єш / волі́є…; past волі́в / волі́ла. Most naturally takes an INFINITIVE (волі́ю піти́ 'I'd rather go'), sometimes a GENITIVE noun (волі́ю споко́ю). Marked (formal / literary): in everyday speech Ukrainians say кра́ще + verb or надава́ти перева́гу + dative. Covers the soft -лі- present, the genitive/infinitive government, and how воліти sits beside the other 'wanting' verbs.
• Verb Reference: Рахувати / Порахувати (to count)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair рахува́ти / порахува́ти 'to count, to calculate'. A regular -ува- verb whose suffix contracts in the present: раху́ю / раху́єш / раху́є…; perfective future пораху́ю; past рахува́в / порахува́ла. Takes a plain ACCUSATIVE object (рахува́ти гро́ші 'count the money'). Crucially, рахува́ти has a second sense — 'to consider, to reckon (that…)' — overlapping with вважа́ти; and it stands beside лічи́ти, a near-synonym for 'count'. Covers the noun рахуно́к 'bill, account, score'.

Motion

• Ходити (to go / walk — multidirectional)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ходи́ти 'to go on foot, to walk' — the MULTIDIRECTIONAL member of the іти́ / ходи́ти motion pair. Covers the present (ходжу́ with д→дж only in the 1sg, then хо́диш / хо́дить / хо́димо / хо́дите / хо́дять), the gendered past where ходи́в means a completed round trip, both imperfective futures, the imperative ході́ть and the hortative ході́мо 'let's go', the habit / round-trip / ability meanings (ходжу́ до шко́ли щодня́; дити́на вже хо́дить), and the prefixed imperfectives прихо́дити, вихо́дити.
• Іти / Піти (to go on foot / set off)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for іти́·йти / піти́ 'to go on foot, to set off'. Covers the full present (іду́, іде́ш… with post-vowel йду / йде́ш alternants), the suppletive gendered past (ішо́в·йшов / ішла́ / ішло́ / ішли́; perfective пішо́в / пішла́), the perfective inceptive future піду́ / пі́деш…, the imperative (іди́ / іді́ть, the everyday Пішли́! / Ході́мо! 'let's go'), and the verb's place in the motion system: UNIDIRECTIONAL іти́ paired with multidirectional ходи́ти, with куди́ + в/на + accusative for destination.
• Їхати / Поїхати (to go by vehicle / set off)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ї́хати / поїхати 'to go by vehicle' — the UNIDIRECTIONAL (determinate) verb of wheeled motion. Covers the soft-stem present ї́ду / ї́деш / ї́де / ї́демо / ї́дете / ї́дуть, the gendered past ї́хав / ї́хала, both imperfective futures, the perfective поїхати 'set off', the destination in в / на + accusative, the vehicle in the INSTRUMENTAL (ї́хати по́тягом), the planned-trip present (за́втра ї́ду до Ки́єва), and the contrast with multidirectional ї́здити.
• Verb Reference: Іти / ХодитиA2 — Full conjugation and usage tables for the foot-motion pair іти (one direction, now) and ходити (habitual or round-trip), with the determinate-vs-indeterminate contrast and a preview of the prefixed derivatives.
• Verb Reference: Летіти / Літати (to fly — uni/multi)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the motion pair леті́ти / літа́ти 'to fly'. Covers the unidirectional леті́ти (лечу́ with т→ч, лети́ш, лети́ть, летя́ть) with its past леті́в / леті́ла, and the multidirectional літа́ти (літа́ю, past літа́в). Explains determinate (one direction, now) vs indeterminate (habitual / round-trip / general ability), the general-ability rule (Птахи́ літа́ють), the prefixed pair прилеті́ти / приліта́ти 'to arrive by air', and the instrumental of vehicle (леті́ти літако́м).
• Verb Reference: Бігти / Бігати (to run — uni/multi)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the motion pair бі́гти / бі́гати 'to run'. Covers the unidirectional бі́гти (біжу́ with г→ж, біжи́ш, біжи́ть, біжа́ть) with its bare masculine past біг / бі́гла, and the multidirectional бі́гати (бі́гаю, past бі́гав). Explains determinate (one direction, now) vs indeterminate (habitual / round-trip / general ability), the prefixed pair прибі́гти / прибіга́ти 'to come running', running 'to/after/from' something, and the errors English speakers make with aspect, the г→ж mutation, and the bare past.
• Verb Reference: Везти / Возити (to transport — uni/multi)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the motion pair везти́ / вози́ти 'to transport (by vehicle)'. Covers the unidirectional везти́ (везу́ / везе́ш / везе́ / везу́ть) with its bare suppletive past віз / везла́, and the multidirectional вози́ти (вожу́ with з→ж, во́зиш, past вози́в). Explains determinate (one trip, now) vs indeterminate (habitual / round-trip), the accusative of cargo and the instrumental of vehicle, the contrast with нести́ (carry by hand) and вести́ (lead a person), the bare past віз, and the errors English speakers make with aspect, mutation, and case.
• Verb Reference: Вести / Водити (to lead / drive — uni/multi)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the motion pair вести́ / води́ти 'to lead (a person/animal) / to drive (a car)'. Covers the unidirectional вести́ (веду́ / веде́ш / веде́ / веду́ть) with its bare suppletive past вів / вела́, and the multidirectional води́ти (воджу́ with д→дж, во́диш, past води́в). Explains determinate vs indeterminate, the accusative object (вести́ дити́ну), the everyday idiom води́ти маши́ну 'to drive', the bare past вів, the contrast with везти́/вози́ти and нести́/носи́ти, and the errors English speakers make with aspect, mutation, and case.

Motion Prefixed

• Приходити / Прийти (to arrive/come on foot)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair прихо́дити (imperfective) / прийти́ (perfective) 'to come, arrive on foot'. Covers the present прихо́джу / прихо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg only), the suppletive perfective past прийшо́в / прийшла́ / прийшло́ / прийшли́, the perfective simple future прийду́ / при́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative прийди́ / прийді́ть, the prefix при- 'arrival/toward', the destination до + genitive (прийти́ до шко́ли), and the habitual прихо́дить vs single прийшо́в contrast.
• Виходити / Вийти (to go out / exit)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair вихо́дити (imperfective) / ви́йти (perfective) 'to go out, exit, leave a place on foot'. Covers the present вихо́джу / вихо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past ви́йшов / ви́йшла / ви́йшло / ви́йшли (note the always-stressed prefix ви-), the perfective future ви́йду / ви́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative ви́йди / ви́йдіть, the source з/із + genitive (ви́йти з кімна́ти) and на + accusative (ви́йти на ву́лицю), and the idiom вихо́дити за́між 'get married (of a woman)'.
• Заходити / Зайти (to drop by / enter)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair захо́дити (imperfective) / зайти́ (perfective) 'to drop by, step in, enter on foot'. Covers the present захо́джу / захо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past зайшо́в / зайшла́ / зайшло́ / зайшли́, the perfective future зайду́ / за́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative зайди́ / зайді́ть and the welcoming Захо́дьте!, the prefix за- 'drop by / step behind or in', до + genitive (зайти́ до дру́га) and в + accusative, plus the idiom со́нце зайшло́ 'the sun set'.
• Переходити / Перейти (to cross / move across)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair перехо́дити (imperfective) / перейти́ (perfective) 'to cross, go across, move over on foot'. Covers the present перехо́джу / перехо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past перейшо́в / перейшла́ / перейшло́ / перейшли́, the perfective future перейду́ / пере́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative перейди́ / перейді́ть, the prefix пере- 'across / over / transition', че́рез + accusative (перейти́ че́рез доро́гу) and на + accusative (перейти́ на іншу мо́ву 'switch language'), plus the contrast with переї́хати 'move house'.
• Приїжджати / Приїхати (to arrive by vehicle)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for приїжджа́ти / приї́хати 'to arrive by vehicle' — the prefixed motion pair built on the at-the-goal prefix при-. Covers the -жджа- present приїжджа́ю / приїжджа́єш, the gendered past приїжджа́в / приї́хав, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future приї́ду, the imperative, and the government: destination in до + genitive (приї́хати до Ки́єва) or в / на + accusative, vehicle in the bare instrumental (приї́хати по́тягом), and the habitual приїжджа́є vs single-arrival приї́хав contrast.
• Виїжджати / Виїхати (to depart by vehicle)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for виїжджа́ти / ви́їхати 'to depart / leave by vehicle' — the prefixed motion pair built on ви- 'out, outward'. Covers the -жджа- present виїжджа́ю / виїжджа́єш, the gendered past виїжджа́в / ви́їхав, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future ви́їду (with ви- always stressed), the imperative, and the government: source in з / із + genitive (ви́їхати з мі́ста), destination in в / на + accusative, vehicle in the bare instrumental — plus the contrast with поїхати 'set off' and переїхати 'relocate'.
• Verb Reference: Дохо́дити / Дійти́ (to reach on foot)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair дохо́дити (imperfective) / дійти́ (perfective) 'to reach, get as far as, arrive at on foot'. Covers the present дохо́джу / дохо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past дійшо́в / дійшла́ / дійшло́ / дійшли́, the perfective future дійду́ / ді́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative дійди́ / дійді́ть, the prefix до- 'reach / all the way up to', до + genitive (дійти́ до рі́чки), and the abstract idioms дійти́ ви́сновку 'reach a conclusion' and дійти́ зго́ди 'reach an agreement'.
• Verb Reference: Прохо́дити / Пройти́ (to pass / go through)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair прохо́дити (imperfective) / пройти́ (perfective) 'to pass, go through, go past, get through on foot'. Covers the present прохо́джу / прохо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past пройшо́в / пройшла́ / пройшло́ / пройшли́, the perfective future пройду́ / про́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative пройди́ / пройді́ть, the prefix про- 'through / past / completed', че́рез + accusative and повз + accusative, the time idiom Час пройшо́в, пройти́ курс 'complete a course', and Як пройти́ до…? 'how do I get to…?'.
• Verb Reference: Відхо́дити / Відійти́ (to step away / depart)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair відхо́дити (imperfective) / відійти́ (perfective) 'to step away, move off, depart, leave on foot'. Covers the present відхо́джу / відхо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past відійшо́в / відійшла́ / відійшло́ / відійшли́, the perfective future відійду́ / віді́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative відійди́ / відійді́ть, the prefix від- 'away / off', від + genitive (відійти́ від вікна́), the departure idiom По́їзд відхо́дить 'the train departs', and the contrast with підхо́дити 'approach'.
• Verb Reference: Підхо́дити / Підійти́ (to approach / suit)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair підхо́дити (imperfective) / підійти́ (perfective) 'to approach, come up to, walk over to' on foot — and the figurative 'to suit / be suitable / fit'. Covers the present підхо́джу / підхо́диш… (д→дж in the 1sg), the suppletive perfective past підійшо́в / підійшла́ / підійшло́ / підійшли́, the perfective future підійду́ / піді́йдеш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative підійди́ / підійді́ть, the prefix під- 'up to / right next to', до + genitive (підійти́ до вікна́), and the crucial підхо́дити + DATIVE = 'to suit / be suitable for someone'.
• Verb Reference: Переїжджа́ти / Переї́хати (to move house / cross by vehicle)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair переїжджа́ти (imperfective) / переї́хати (perfective) 'to move house / relocate, and to drive across / cross by vehicle'. Covers the -жджа- present переїжджа́ю / переїжджа́єш…, the gendered past переїжджа́в / переї́хав, both imperfective futures and the perfective simple future переї́ду / переї́деш…, the imperative переї́дь / переї́дьте, the prefix пере- 'across / relocate', destination in в / до + accusative/genitive, че́рез + accusative for the route, and the contrast with переходи́ти (on foot).
• Verb Reference: Вно́сити / Внести́ (to bring in / contribute)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair вно́сити (imperfective) / внести́ (perfective) 'to bring in, carry in; to contribute, introduce, make (changes)'. Covers the present вно́шу / вно́сиш… with the с→ш mutation in the 1sg, the bare suppletive past вніс / внесла́ / внесло́ / внесли́, the perfective future внесу́ / внесе́ш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative внеси́ / внесі́ть, the prefix в- 'into', accusative object plus в/на + accusative of the place (внести́ ме́блі в кімна́ту), and the abstract idioms внести́ змі́ни 'make changes', внести́ вне́сок 'contribute', внести́ я́сність 'clarify'.
• Verb Reference: Вино́сити / Ви́нести (to carry out / endure)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair вино́сити (imperfective) / ви́нести (perfective) 'to carry out, take out; to pass (a verdict); to bear, endure'. Covers the present вино́шу / вино́сиш… with the с→ш mutation in the 1sg, the prefix-stressed perfective forms ви́несу / ви́несеш… and the past ви́ніс / ви́несла / ви́несло / ви́несли, both imperfective futures, the imperative ви́неси / ви́несіть, the prefix ви- 'out', accusative object plus з + genitive of the place (ви́нести смі́ття з ха́ти), and the abstract idioms ви́нести рі́шення 'pass a decision', не вино́сити 'can't stand'.
• Verb Reference: Прино́сити / Принести́ (to bring on foot)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair прино́сити (imperfective) / принести́ (perfective) 'to bring (carrying it, on foot)'. Covers the present прино́шу / прино́сиш… with the с→ш mutation in the 1sg, the bare suppletive past прині́с / принесла́ / принесло́ / принесли́, the perfective future принесу́ / принесе́ш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative принеси́ / принесі́ть, the prefix при- 'bring toward', accusative object plus a dative recipient (принести́ дру́гові кни́гу), and the contrast with приво́дити 'bring a person' and привози́ти 'bring by vehicle'.
• Verb Reference: Приво́дити / Привести́ (to bring a person)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair приво́дити (imperfective) / привести́ (perfective) 'to bring (a person or animal, leading them on foot)'. Covers the present приво́джу / приво́диш… with the д→дж mutation in the 1sg, the bare suppletive past приві́в / привела́ / привело́ / привели́, the perfective future приведу́ / приведе́ш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative приведи́ / приведі́ть, the prefix при- 'toward here', accusative of the person or animal led (привести́ дру́га, соба́ку), the abstract привести́ до + genitive 'lead to / result in', and the contrast with приноси́ти 'bring an object' and привози́ти 'bring by vehicle'.
• Verb Reference: Приво́зити / Привезти́ (to bring by vehicle)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the prefixed motion pair приво́зити (imperfective) / привезти́ (perfective) 'to bring (cargo or a passenger by vehicle)'. Covers the present приво́жу / приво́зиш… with the з→ж mutation in the 1sg, the bare suppletive past приві́з / привезла́ / привезло́ / привезли́, the perfective future привезу́ / привезе́ш…, both imperfective futures, the imperative привези́ / привезі́ть, the prefix при- 'toward here', accusative cargo plus a dative recipient (привезти́ дру́гові пода́рунок), the instrumental of the vehicle, and the contrast with приноси́ти 'carry by hand' and приводи́ти 'lead a person on foot'.

Reflexive

• Сміятися (to laugh)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for смія́тися 'to laugh' — an inherently reflexive -ся verb with no non-reflexive *сміяти. Covers the present смію́ся / сміє́шся / сміє́ться / сміє́мося / сміє́теся / смію́ться, the gendered past смія́вся / смія́лася / смія́лося / смія́лися, both imperfective futures, the perfective засмія́тися 'burst out laughing', the imperative смі́йся / смі́йтеся, and the all-important government з + GENITIVE for 'laugh AT someone' (смія́тися з ньо́го).
• Подобатися (to be pleasing / to like)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for подо́батися 'to be pleasing / to like' — the model EXPERIENCER-DATIVE verb where the liker goes in the dative (Мені́ подо́бається…) and the thing liked is the nominative subject that controls agreement (подо́бається ця кни́га, подо́баються ці кни́ги). Covers the imperfective present, the gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative, the perfective сподо́батися, and the contrast with люби́ти (accusative).
• Вчитися / Навчитися (to study / learn)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for вчи́тися (·учи́тися) / навчи́тися 'to study, to learn' — a reflexive -ся verb with the present вчу́ся / вчи́шся / вчи́ться / вча́ться, the gendered past вчи́вся / вчи́лася, and the perfective навчи́тися. Covers its three government patterns — + у/в+locative (place of study), + infinitive (learn to do), and + genitive of a skill/subject (навчи́тися мо́ви) — and the all-important contrast with non-reflexive вчи́ти 'to teach / to memorise'.
• Боятися (to fear / be afraid)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for боя́тися 'to be afraid (of)' — the model emotional -ся verb that governs the GENITIVE case (боя́тися соба́к 'be afraid of dogs', боя́тися те́мряви 'be afraid of the dark') or an infinitive 'be afraid to'. Covers the second-conjugation present with the ї (бою́ся / бої́шся / бої́ться), the gendered past боя́вся / боя́лася, the high-frequency imperative не бі́йся / не бі́йтеся, and the genitive-vs-accusative trap English speakers fall into.
• Цікавитися (to be interested in)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ціка́витися 'to be interested in' — a reflexive -ся verb that governs the INSTRUMENTAL case (ціка́витися істо́рією 'be interested in history', спо́ртом, мисте́цтвом). Covers the second-conjugation present with the labial в→вл insertion in the 1sg ціка́влюся, the gendered past ціка́вився / ціка́вилася, the perfective заціка́витися 'become interested', and the contrast with the non-reflexive ціка́вити 'to interest someone' (мене́ ціка́вить).
• Одягатися / Одягнутися (to get dressed)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for одяга́тися / одягну́тися 'to get dressed, to dress oneself' — a TRUE reflexive -ся verb (the action turns back on the subject). Covers the first-conjugation imperfective present одяга́юся / одяга́єшся, the -ну- perfective одягну́тися (одягну́ся / одягне́шся), the gendered past одяга́вся / одягну́вся, the +у/в+accusative 'dress in' pattern, and the contrast with the non-reflexive одяга́ти / одягну́ти 'to dress someone'. Sits inside the clothing-verb family with взува́тися and роздяга́тися.
• Verb Reference: Купатися (to bathe / swim)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for купа́тися 'to bathe oneself, to swim (for fun)' — a true reflexive -ся verb. Covers the first-conjugation present купа́юся / купа́єшся, the two perfectives ви́купатися (prefix-stressed) and скупа́тися, the в + locative 'swim in' pattern (купа́тися в мо́рі), the contrast with пла́вати 'swim as a skill', and the non-reflexive купа́ти 'to bathe someone' (accusative).
• Verb Reference: Дивуватися / Здивуватися (to be surprised)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for дивува́тися / здивува́тися 'to be surprised, to wonder (at)' — a reflexive -ся verb with a striking stress swing (present диву́юся, past дивува́вся). Covers the government з + genitive and the bare dative of the cause (дивува́тися новині́ / з новини́), the contrast with the non-reflexive дивува́ти 'to surprise someone' (accusative), and the gendered past дивува́вся / здивува́лася.
• Verb Reference: Сперечатися / Посперечатися (to argue)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for спереча́тися / поспереча́тися 'to argue, to debate, to dispute' — a reciprocal reflexive -ся verb. Covers the з + instrumental ('argue with') and про + accusative ('argue about') government frame, the contrast with сва́ритися 'quarrel', the related noun супере́чка, and the gendered past спереча́вся / спереча́лася.
• Verb Reference: Народжуватися / Народитися (to be born)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for наро́джуватися / народи́тися 'to be born' — the reflexive -ся verb you need for stating where and when you were born. Covers the д→дж 1sg mutation (народжу́ся), the otherwise root-stressed perfective future наро́дишся / наро́диться, the gendered past народи́вся / народи́лася, the date of birth in the genitive (народи́вся п’я́того тра́вня), the place in в + locative (народи́вся в Ки́єві), and the contrast with non-reflexive наро́джувати / народи́ти 'to give birth'.
• Verb Reference: Одружуватися / Одружитися (to marry)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for одру́жуватися / одружи́тися 'to get married' — the reflexive -ся verb whose government is the single biggest Ukrainian-vs-Russian trap: you marry З + INSTRUMENTAL (одружи́тися з не́ю), never *на ній. Covers the 1sg одружу́ся, the otherwise root-stressed future одру́жишся / одру́житься, the gendered past одружи́вся / одружи́лася, the woman's alternative ви́йти за́між (за + accusative), and the transitive одружи́ти 'to marry someone off'.
• Verb Reference: Усміхатися / Усміхнутися (to smile)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for усміха́тися / усміхну́тися 'to smile' — a reflexive -ся pair where the perfective is a -ну́- semelfactive (one quick smile). Covers the imperfective present усміха́юся, the end-stressed perfective future усміхну́ся / усміхне́шся, the gendered past усміха́вся / усміхну́вся, the person smiled at in до + genitive (усміхну́тися до дити́ни), the contrast with сміятися 'to laugh' (з + genitive), and the noun у́смішка / усмі́шка.
• Verb Reference: Стикатися / Зіткнутися (to encounter / collide)C1 — Full conjugation and usage of the reflexive aspect pair стикатися / зіткнутися — the abstract 'face / run into' and the physical 'collide,' both governing з + instrumental.
• Verb Reference: Займатися / Зайнятися (to engage in / be busy with)B1 — Full conjugation and usage of the reflexive aspect pair займатися / зайнятися 'to engage in, take up, be busy with' — governing the bare instrumental, plus зайнятий 'busy.'
• Verb Reference: Стомлюватися / Стомитися (to get tired)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive aspect pair сто́млюватися / стоми́тися 'to get tired, to tire'. The headline form is the perfective 1sg стомлю́ся, where the labial м takes an inserted -л- (м→мл) — сто́мишся, сто́миться, сто́мляться. Imperfective present сто́млююся; past стоми́вся / стоми́лася (gendered). Government: від + GENITIVE for the cause (стоми́тися від робо́ти). Covers the closely related втоми́тися, the everyday adjective вто́млений 'tired', and why you must keep the -ся.
• Verb Reference: Помилятися / Помилитися (to make a mistake)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive aspect pair помиля́тися / помили́тися 'to make a mistake, to be wrong'. Imperfective present помиля́юся / помиля́єшся…; perfective future помилю́ся / поми́лишся / поми́литься / поми́ляться. Gendered past — я помили́вся (m) / я помили́лася (f) — is the everyday 'I was wrong'. Used intransitively or with в + LOCATIVE for the domain of the error (помили́тися в розраху́нках 'to make a mistake in the calculations'). Covers the noun поми́лка, the reflexive -ся, and the perfective-future stress.

Second Conjugation

• Говорити (to speak)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for говори́ти 'to speak / talk / say' — a second-conjugation verb with the codified MOBILE STRESS that trips up everyone: end-stressed only in the 1sg говорю́, then stem-stressed гово́риш, гово́рить, гово́римо, гово́рите, гово́рять. Covers the gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative, the bare-INSTRUMENTAL pattern for 'speak a language' (говори́ти украї́нською), and the three-way split with розмовля́ти 'converse' and каза́ти / сказа́ти 'say'.
• Любити (to love / like)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for люби́ти 'to love / to like' — a second-conjugation verb with the labial л-insertion in BOTH the 1sg люблю́ and the 3pl лю́блять (but лю́биш, лю́бить, лю́бимо, лю́бите between them), and the stress retracting to the stem after люблю́. Covers the gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative люби́, the accusative object (люблю́ ка́ву, люблю́ тебе́) and the + infinitive pattern (люблю́ чита́ти), the perfective полюби́ти 'come to love', and the contrast with подо́батися for a milder 'like'.
• Бачити / Побачити (to see)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair ба́чити / поба́чити 'to see'. A second-conjugation verb with NO consonant mutation but the -ать ending after ч (ба́чу, ба́чиш, ба́чить, ба́чимо, ба́чите, ба́чать). Covers the gendered past, both imperfective futures, the perfective simple future поба́чу, the imperative (диви́сь is the everyday one), the animate accusative-equals-genitive object (ба́чу дру́га), the reciprocal ба́читися 'see each other', the contrast with диви́тися 'watch / look at', and the farewell До поба́чення! literally 'until seeing'.
• Робити / Зробити (to do / make)A1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for роби́ти / зроби́ти 'to do, to make' — a second-conjugation verb with the labial л-insertion in the 1sg роблю́ AND the 3pl ро́блять (but ро́биш, ро́бить, ро́бимо, ро́бите between them), and the stress retracting to the stem after роблю́. Covers the gendered past, both imperfective futures, the imperative роби́, the model aspect pair роби́ти / зроби́ти (зроблю́ = future), the everyday question Що ти ро́биш? 'what are you doing?', the accusative object, and the rich prefix family (переробля́ти, доробля́ти, заробля́ти).
• Сидіти (to sit / be sitting)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for сиді́ти 'to sit, to be sitting' — a second-conjugation STATE verb with the д→дж mutation in the 1sg сиджу́ (then сиди́ш / сиди́ть / сиди́мо / сидите́ / сидя́ть). Covers the gendered past сиді́в / сиді́ла, both imperfective futures, the imperative сиди́ / сиді́ть, the all-important contrast with the change-of-state pair сіда́ти / сі́сти 'to sit DOWN', the locative government (сиді́ти на сті́льці, в кімна́ті), and the stance trio сиді́ти / стоя́ти / лежа́ти.
• Спати (to sleep)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for спа́ти 'to sleep' — a second-conjugation verb with the labial п→пл insertion in the 1sg сплю and the 3pl сплять (but спиш / спить / спимо́ / спите́ between them). Covers the gendered past спав / спала́, both imperfective futures, the imperative спи / спіть, the perfectives поспа́ти 'sleep a while' and засну́ти 'to fall asleep' (the change of state), the idioms спа́ти мі́цно, and the impersonal experiencer мені́ не спи́ться 'I can't sleep'.
• Стояти (to stand)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for стоя́ти 'to stand, to be standing' — a second-conjugation STATE verb whose stem ends in a vowel, so the endings take -ї- after it (стою́ / стої́ш / стої́ть / стоїмо́ / стоїте́ / стоя́ть). Covers the gendered past стоя́в / стоя́ла, both imperfective futures, the imperative стій / сті́йте, the all-important contrast with the change-of-state pair встава́ти / вста́ти 'to get up' and става́ти / ста́ти 'to become / stop', the locative government (стоя́ти на зупи́нці), and the stance trio стоя́ти / сиді́ти / лежа́ти — including the fact that inanimate things 'stand': Маши́на стої́ть бі́ля до́му.
• Дивитися / Подивитися (to watch / look)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive aspect pair диви́тися / подиви́тися 'to watch, to look'. Covers the second-conjugation present with its 1sg labial mutation and stress retraction (дивлю́ся, ди́вишся, ди́виться, ди́вимося, ди́витеся, ди́вляться), the gendered past (диви́вся / диви́лася), all three futures, and the imperatives диви́ся / диві́ться. The headline is government: диви́тися НА + accusative for 'look at' (диви́тися на карти́ну) but a BARE ACCUSATIVE for 'watch' (диви́тися фільм, телеві́зор), plus у/в + accusative for direction (диви́тися у вікно́). Contrasts диви́тися ('look', active) with ба́чити ('see', passive).
• Verb Reference: Тримати (to hold)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for трима́ти 'to hold, keep'. A fully regular first-conjugation -а-ти verb (трима́ю / трима́єш / трима́ють), with past трима́в / трима́ла, imperative трима́й, and both imperfective futures. Covers the accusative object (трима́ти кни́жку), the high-frequency idioms трима́ти сло́во 'keep one's word' and трима́ти язи́к за зуба́ми 'hold one's tongue', the reflexive трима́тися 'hold on' + за + accusative, and the errors English speakers make.
• Verb Reference: Носити (to wear / carry around)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for носи́ти 'to wear / carry around'. A second-conjugation -и-ти verb with the с→ш mutation in the 1sg (ношу́), then но́сиш / но́сить / но́сять, past носи́в / носи́ла, imperative носи́. Covers the everyday 'wear (clothes)' meaning (ношу́ окуля́ри, носи́ти су́кню), the 'carry around / habitually carry' meaning as the indeterminate twin of нести́, the accusative object, and the errors English speakers make with the с→ш mutation, stress, and the choice between носи́ти and нести́.
• Verb Reference: Лежати (to lie / be lying)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for лежа́ти 'to lie, to be in a lying position' — the STATE verb of the stance trio стоя́ти / сиді́ти / лежа́ти. Covers the end-stressed second-conjugation present лежу́ / лежи́ш / лежи́ть / лежимо́ / лежите́ / лежа́ть, the past лежа́в / лежа́ла, both imperfective futures, the locative government лежа́ти на дива́ні, the imperative лежи́, the delimitative perfective полежа́ти, and the crucial contrast with the action verb ляга́ти / лягти́ 'lie down'.
• Verb Reference: Вірити / Повірити (to believe / trust)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for ві́рити / пові́рити 'to believe, to trust' — a verb whose MEANING is decided by its case government. Covers the stem-stressed second-conjugation present ві́рю / ві́риш / ві́рить / ві́римо / ві́рите / ві́рять, the perfective пові́рити, the past ві́рив / пові́рив, both imperfective futures, and the all-important split between the DATIVE for trusting a person (ві́рити дру́гові) and в + ACCUSATIVE for 'believing in' something (ві́рити в Бо́га, в успі́х).
• Verb Reference: Пробачати / Пробачити (to forgive)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for проба́чати / проба́чити 'to forgive, to excuse' — a verb that forgives the PERSON in the dative and the offence in the accusative. Covers the imperfective present проба́чаю / проба́чаєш, the perfective future проба́чу / проба́чиш / проба́чить / проба́чимо / проба́чите / проба́чать, the past проба́чав / проба́чив, both imperfective futures, the everyday apology Проба́чте!, the dative government проба́чити кому́сь, and the synonym вибача́ти / ви́бачити with its reflexive вибача́тися 'apologise'.

Special

• Нести / Носити (to carry — uni/multi)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for нести́ / носи́ти 'to carry' — a paired motion verb of transporting a load. Covers the unidirectional нести́ (несу́ / несе́ш / несе́ / несу́ть) with its bare suppletive past ніс / несла́ / несло́ / несли́, and the multidirectional носи́ти (ношу́ with с→ш, но́сиш / но́сить / но́сять) with the past носи́в / носи́ла. Notes that носи́ти also means 'to wear (clothes)', that the object is in the accusative (нести́ су́мку), and how the одно-/багатоспрямований split works for things you carry.
• Телефонувати/Дзвонити / Подзвонити (to call/phone)A2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the 'to phone / call' verbs — formal телефонува́ти (телефону́ю / телефону́єш), everyday дзвони́ти (дзвоню́ / дзво́ниш) and its perfective подзвони́ти (подзвоню́ / подзво́ниш). Covers the present, the gendered past телефонува́в / дзвони́в / подзвони́в, both imperfective futures, the imperative, and — crucially — the case government: ALL these verbs take the DATIVE of the person called (подзвони́ти дру́гові, not the accusative), while дзвони́ти also means 'to ring (a bell)'.
• Почуватися / Почуватись (to feel — health/state)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the reflexive почува́тися / почува́тись 'to feel (a certain way)' — the verb of health and inner state. Covers the present почува́юся / почува́єшся / почува́ється, the gendered past почува́вся / почува́лася, both imperfective futures, the imperative почува́йся, and the key construction: почува́тися + ADVERB (почува́юся до́бре / пога́но), not an adjective. Contrasts it with відчува́ти 'to sense / feel something' (+ accusative) and flags the calque почува́ти себе́.
• Знаходити / Знайти та Знаходитися (to find / be located)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair знахо́дити (imperfective) / знайти́ (perfective) 'to find' plus its reflexive знахо́дитися / знайти́ся 'to be located, to turn up'. Covers the 1sg consonant mutation д→дж (знахо́джу), the suppletive perfective stem (знайду́ in the future, знайшо́в in the past), the accusative object, and how adding -ся flips the meaning from 'find something' to 'be situated somewhere' (Музе́й знахо́диться в це́нтрі).
• Залишати / Залишити та Залишатися (to leave / remain)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair залиша́ти (imperfective) / залиши́ти (perfective) 'to leave (something behind), to keep' plus its reflexive залиша́тися / залиши́тися 'to remain, to stay'. Covers the accusative object of the transitive verb (залиши́ти ключі́ вдо́ма), the stress shift to the stem in the perfective (зали́шу), the instrumental/adverb predicate of the reflexive (залиши́тися дру́гом), and the very common impersonal залиши́лося 'there remained / was left'.
• Відкривати / Відкрити та Відчиняти / Відчинити (to open)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the two Ukrainian verbs for 'open': відчиня́ти / відчини́ти for PHYSICAL doors and windows (відчини́ти две́рі, вікно́), and відкрива́ти / відкри́ти for everything else — books, eyes, accounts, businesses, secrets, discoveries (відкри́ти кни́гу, о́чі, раху́нок, Аме́рику). Where Russian открыть conflates both, careful Ukrainian keeps them apart; this page draws the line, gives both full paradigms, and flags the door/window rule.
• Verb Reference: Могти, Хотіти, МуситиB1 — Full conjugation and usage tables for the three core modal verbs могти (can), хотіти (want), and мусити (must), with their governed infinitives and the impersonal alternatives.
• Verb Reference: Піднімати / Підняти (to raise / lift)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair підніма́ти (impf) / підня́ти (pf) 'to raise, lift, pick up'. Present підніма́ю / підніма́єш…, perfective future підніму́ / підні́меш / підні́ме / підні́мемо / підні́мете / підні́муть, past підня́в / підняла́ / підняло́ / підняли́. Government: bare ACCUSATIVE. Covers the reflexive підніма́тися / підня́тися 'rise, go up' and the antonym опуска́ти / опусти́ти 'lower'.
• Verb Reference: Кидати / Кинути (to throw / quit)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the aspect pair ки́дати (impf) / ки́нути (pf) 'to throw, toss; to quit, give up; to abandon'. Present ки́даю / ки́даєш…, perfective future ки́ну / ки́неш / ки́не / ки́немо / ки́нете / ки́нуть, past ки́нув / ки́дав. The perfective is a SEMELFACTIVE -ну- form. Government: bare ACCUSATIVE. Covers ки́нути пали́ти 'quit smoking' and the reflexive ки́датися 'rush at'.
• Verb Reference: Ловити / Спіймати (to catch)B2 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for the suppletive aspect pair лови́ти (impf) / спійма́ти (pf) 'to catch, trap, grab'. Present ловлю́ / ло́виш / ло́вить / ло́вимо / ло́вите / ло́влять — note the 1sg consonant mutation в→вл. Perfective future спійма́ю / спійма́єш…, past лови́в / спійма́в. Government: bare ACCUSATIVE. Covers the variant злови́ти and the idiom лови́ти моме́нт.
• Verb Reference: Нарікати / Скаржитися (complaining verbs)B2 — Full conjugation of наріка́ти (impf) 'to grumble, lament, complain about one's lot' (present наріка́ю / наріка́єш / наріка́є / наріка́ємо / наріка́єте / наріка́ють, past наріка́в, government на + ACCUSATIVE), then a clear contrast with ска́ржитися 'to lodge / voice a complaint'. Both mean 'complain' and both take на + accusative, but they differ in register and frame. Cross-links the full ска́ржитися reference.
• Verb Reference: Sleep Verbs (спати, лягати спати, засинати…)A2 — A family reference for the Ukrainian sleep cycle — ляга́ти/лягти́ спа́ти 'go to bed', засина́ти/засну́ти 'fall asleep', спа́ти 'sleep (state)', прокида́тися/проки́нутися 'wake up', and висипа́тися/ви́спатися 'get enough sleep'. Shows each verb's key stress-marked forms and how aspect carries you through the routine: lie down → drop off → sleep → wake → be well-rested.
• Verb Reference: Треба / Потрібно / Можна (necessity)A2 — Reference for the impersonal necessity predicatives тре́ба 'need to', потрі́бно 'need / it is necessary', мо́жна 'may / one can', не мо́жна 'must not', and слід / ва́рто 'should / worth'. These are INVARIABLE — they do not conjugate. They build the frame DATIVE experiencer + infinitive (Мені́ тре́ба йти), and shift tense only through бу́ти (тре́ба було́, тре́ба бу́де). Covers потрі́бен / потрі́бна, which DO agree with a following noun (Мені́ потрі́бен сло́вник), and contrasts the impersonal predicatives with conjugating му́сити and agreeing пови́нен.

Suppletive Pairs

• Класти / Покласти (to put / lay)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for кла́сти / покла́сти 'to put, to lay (down)' — the verb of putting something into a HORIZONTAL position. Covers the suppletive клад-stem present кладу́ / кладе́ш / кладе́ / кладемо́ / кладете́ / кладу́ть, the gendered past клав / кла́ла, both imperfective futures, the perfective покла́сти, the accusative object + directional у / на / під + accusative, and the crucial three-way contrast with ста́вити 'put upright' and ві́шати 'hang'.
• Ставати / Стати (to become / stand up)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for става́ти / ста́ти — a high-frequency verb meaning 'to become', 'to stand up / take a position', and (impersonally) 'to get / turn'. Covers the imperfective present стаю́ / стає́ш / стає́ / стаємо́ / стаєте́ / стаю́ть, the gendered past става́в / став, both imperfective futures, the perfective ста́ну / ста́неш / ста́не / ста́немо / ста́нете / ста́нуть, the predicate INSTRUMENTAL ('become' — став лі́карем), the impersonal ста́ло + adverb ('it got cold'), and ста́ти + infinitive ('begin').
• Сідати / Сісти (to sit down)B1 — Complete conjugation-and-usage reference for сіда́ти / сі́сти 'to sit down, to take a seat' — the verb of the CHANGE of state into a sitting position (as opposed to сиді́ти 'be sitting'). Covers the regular imperfective present сіда́ю / сіда́єш / сіда́є / сіда́ємо / сіда́єте / сіда́ють, the gendered past сіда́в / сів / сі́ла, both imperfective futures, the perfective ся́ду / ся́деш / ся́де / ся́демо / ся́дете / ся́дуть (note the ся-stem), the directional на / в + accusative, the boarding sense (сі́сти на по́їзд), and the warm invitation сіда́й! / сіда́йте!

Aspect

• Verbal Aspect: The Big PictureA2 — Aspect is the central, pervasive feature of the Ukrainian verb: nearly every verb belongs to an aspect PAIR — imperfective (недоко́наний вид), which views an action as a process, ongoing, repeated, or general (чита́ти), and perfective (доко́наний вид), which views it as a single completed whole with a result or boundary (прочита́ти). The consequences are sharp: imperfectives have a present, a past, and BOTH futures (бу́ду чита́ти / чита́тиму); perfectives have NO present — their present-shaped form is future (прочита́ю = 'I will read it through') — only a past (прочита́в) and a simple future (прочита́ю). Aspect is chosen for EVERY verb in EVERY clause; it is not optional, and it has no English equivalent.
• What the Imperfective MeansA2 — The imperfective (недоко́наний вид) is the aspect of process, habit, simultaneity, and — crucially — of simply naming an activity without caring whether it finished: чита́ти, чита́ю, чита́в. It is the ONLY aspect with a real present, the default for repeated and backgrounded action, and the form Ukrainian uses to ask whether something was ever done at all (Ти диви́вся цей фільм? 'have you seen this film?').
• What the Perfective MeansA2 — The perfective (доко́наний вид) views the action as a single bounded whole: a completed result (прочита́в, написа́в), a step in a narrative chain (прийшо́в, сів, відкри́в), an onset (заспіва́в, пішо́в), or a finished future result (прочита́ю). Its defining idea is BOUNDEDNESS, it drives narrative sequences, and — the fact that catches everyone — it has NO present: прочита́ю IS the future.
• Forming Aspect Pairs: PrefixesB1 — The most common way to build a perfective is to add a 'pure' perfectivizing prefix to the imperfective: чита́ти→прочита́ти, писа́ти→написа́ти, роби́ти→зроби́ти, ї́сти→з’ї́сти, пи́ти→ви́пити. The frequent perfectivizing prefixes are про-, на-, з-/с-/зі-, по-, ви-, при-. The catch: the SAME prefixes can instead add lexical meaning and make a NEW verb (писа́ти→переписа́ти 'rewrite'), so you must learn to tell aspect-only prefixation from meaning-changing prefixation.
• Forming Aspect Pairs: Suffixes and StemsB1 — The other half of the pairing system: deriving an IMPERFECTIVE from a perfective by suffix, above all the -а-/-ува-/-ову- imperfectivizing suffixes — да́ти→дава́ти, купи́ти→купува́ти, показа́ти→пока́зувати, забу́ти→забува́ти, відкри́ти→відкрива́ти. Plus consonant mutations (зустрі́ти→зустріча́ти), root-vowel alternations (зібра́ти→збира́ти, поме́рти→помира́ти), and the handful of suppletive pairs that must simply be memorised (бра́ти/взя́ти, говори́ти/сказа́ти).
• When Prefixes Change Meaning (Aktionsart)B1 — Beyond pure perfectivizing, prefixes ADD lexical meaning and build whole verb families from one root: писа́ти → написа́ти, переписа́ти, записа́ти, підписа́ти, дописа́ти, ви́писати, розписа́ти, приписа́ти. Learn the prefix meanings — за- 'begin', по- 'a bit/a while', пере- 're-/over', до- 'finish off', ви- 'out', при- 'arrive' — and you unlock new verbs by the dozen. Each new verb is its OWN lexeme with its OWN aspect pair, not a pair with the bare root.
• Biaspectual and Aspect-Only VerbsB2 — Not every verb has a clean imperfective/perfective pair: biaspectual verbs (двовидові) like телефонува́ти, організува́ти and атакува́ти carry BOTH aspects in one form and let context decide; imperfectiva tantum (бу́ти, ма́ти, могти́, хоті́ти, зна́ти) have no perfective at all; perfectiva tantum (опини́тися, розговори́тися) have no imperfective; and the semelfactive -ну- verbs (сту́кнути, кри́кнути, махну́ти) express a single instantaneous act against a multiplicative imperfective (сту́кати, крича́ти, маха́ти).
• Aspect in the Past TenseA2 — The past tense is where you make the aspect choice most often. The imperfective past (чита́в) names a process, a habit, or background activity — 'was reading / used to read / read at it'; the perfective past (прочита́в) reports a single completed result — 'read it through'. Master eight minimal pairs (писа́в/написа́в, вчи́в/ви́вчив, роби́в/зроби́в, розв’я́зував/розв’яза́в) and the narrative engine: a chain of perfectives drives a sequence of events while an imperfective paints the background scene they happen against.
• Aspect in the Future TenseA2 — English 'will read' is ambiguous; Ukrainian forces a choice. The PERFECTIVE future is the simple one-word form — прочита́ю, напишу́, зроблю́, куплю́ — for a single completed future result. The IMPERFECTIVE future is a two-piece form, either analytic (бу́ду чита́ти) or synthetic (чита́тиму), for an ongoing, repeated, or process-focused future. The perfective can NEVER use бу́ду — *бу́ду прочита́ти is impossible — because бу́ду builds only on imperfective infinitives.
• Aspect in the ImperativeB1 — In commands, aspect carries pragmatic weight. The PERFECTIVE imperative (Прочита́й! Закри́й! Напиши́! Зроби́!) makes a single, specific, one-off request you want completed. The IMPERFECTIVE imperative (Чита́й бі́льше! Заходь! Не закрива́й!) is for a general or repeated instruction, an invitation/process, politeness — and crucially for NEGATIVE prohibitions, which strongly prefer the imperfective. The twist: a one-time WARNING against an accidental event flips back to the perfective — Не впади́! Не забу́дь! Не загуби́ ключі́!
• Aspect After Phase and Modal VerbsB1 — Some verbs force the aspect of the infinitive that follows them. PHASE verbs — почина́ти/почати 'begin', продо́вжувати 'continue', закі́нчувати/закінчити 'finish', перестава́ти/переста́ти 'stop' — grammatically REQUIRE an IMPERFECTIVE infinitive: почина́ю чита́ти, never *почина́ю прочита́ти. This is a hard rule, because beginning, continuing, and stopping inherently view the action as an unbounded process. MODAL and desire verbs (хоті́ти, могти́, му́сити, тре́ба) take EITHER aspect by meaning — хо́чу чита́ти (process) vs хо́чу прочита́ти (finish it) — and negated necessity (не тре́ба, не мо́жна) leans imperfective.
• Aspect and Verbs of MotionB2 — Motion verbs add a second axis to aspect. Unprefixed, they split into unidirectional (іти́, ї́хати) and multidirectional (ходи́ти, ї́здити) — and BOTH are imperfective. But a directional prefix reshuffles everything: that prefix on the unidirectional stem yields a PERFECTIVE (прийти́ 'arrive', піти́ 'set off'), while the SAME prefix on the multidirectional stem yields its IMPERFECTIVE partner (прихо́дити). So прийти́ (perf) / прихо́дити (impf) are an aspect pair — 'he arrives every day' is прихо́дить, 'he arrived' is прийшо́в. This two-layer system (direction + aspect) is the hardest thing in the motion system.
• High-Frequency Aspect Pairs to MemorizeA2 — A curated reference list of the ~40 most useful imperfective/perfective pairs, grouped by HOW they are formed — prefix pairs (чита́ти/прочита́ти), suffix pairs (купува́ти/купи́ти), suppletive pairs (бра́ти/взя́ти, говори́ти/сказа́ти), and root-vowel pairs (збира́ти/зібра́ти) — so you can absorb whole clusters at once instead of memorising every verb in isolation.
• Secondary Imperfectives and Aspect TripletsB2 — How a prefixed perfective spawns its own imperfective via -ува-/-юва-/-а- (переписа́ти → перепи́сувати), producing aspect 'triplets' (писа́ти → переписа́ти → перепи́сувати) — the engine that keeps every prefixed verb aspectually paired, plus the о/и and е/и root alternations (зібра́ти → збира́ти) that ride along with it.
• Semelfactive -ну- Verbs (a single act)B2 — The -ну- suffix carves a SEMELFACTIVE out of a repeatable action — one instantaneous instance: кри́кнути 'give one shout' beside крича́ти 'be shouting', сту́кнути 'knock once' beside сту́кати, махну́ти 'give one wave' beside маха́ти. These -ну- verbs are perfective and punctual; this page sets them against their multiplicative -а- imperfectives and notes the -ну- verbs that drop the suffix in the past (мерзнути → мерз).
• Aspect Choice in the InfinitiveB2 — Every Ukrainian infinitive carries aspect, so 'I want to read' splits by intent: хо́чу чита́ти (engage in the process) vs хо́чу прочита́ти (read it through to the end). After PHASE verbs (поча́ти, переста́ти, продо́вжувати) the infinitive is GRAMMATICALLY locked to imperfective — поча́в учи́ти, never *поча́в ви́вчити. After modals/desire (хоті́ти, могти́, тре́ба) you choose by meaning; забу́ти/всти́гнути lean perfective (a single completed act); and negated 'no need / not worth' (не тре́ба, не ва́рто) leans imperfective. Choosing the infinitive's aspect is a constant, meaning-bearing decision English never makes.

Conditional & Subjunctive

• The Conditional: би / бA2 — Ukrainian's conditional/subjunctive (умо́вний спо́сіб) is the easiest mood to build: the PAST-tense verb + the invariant particle би (after a consonant) / б (after a vowel). Я чита́в би / чита́ла б 'I would read', Він прийшо́в би 'he would come', Ми хоті́ли б 'we'd like.' Because the base is the past tense, the conditional is GENDERED (він зроби́в би, вона́ зроби́ла б) and there is no separate conditional inflection. The particle floats in the clause — Я б хоті́в / Хоті́в би я — and fuses with conjunctions: як + би → якби́ 'if', що + б → щоб 'so that.' One form covers both 'would do' and 'would have done'; time comes from aspect and context.
• Using the Conditional (Якби, Polite Requests, Wishes)B1 — One conditional construction (past-tense verb + би/б) does the work English splits across 'would', 'would have', 'could', and polite 'I'd like'. This page covers hypothetical and counterfactual conditions with якби́ ('if'), polite softened requests (Я хоті́в би, Чи не могли́ б ви), and wishes (Якби́ ж, Хоч би) — and shows why Ukrainian needs no separate 'would have' past conditional.
• Щоб Clauses (Purpose and Subordinate Will)B1 — Щоб (= що + б) introduces two kinds of clause: purpose ('in order to') and subordinate will/desire after verbs like хоті́ти, проси́ти, каза́ти. The make-or-break rule: same subject → щоб + infinitive (Я прийшо́в, щоб допомогти́); different subjects → щоб + the PAST-tense (subjunctive) form (Я хочу́, щоб ти прийшо́в 'I want you to come'). English's 'I want you to come' has no infinitive equivalent here.

Fundamentals

• The Ukrainian Verb System: OverviewA1 — A map of the whole verb system: every verb belongs to an ASPECT pair (imperfective читати / perfective прочитати), splits into one of two CONJUGATIONS (читаю vs говорю), and runs through a present (imperfective only), a gendered past (читав / читала), and TWO futures — the analytic буду читати and the one-word synthetic читатиму that Russian lacks — plus the conditional, the imperative, and reflexive -ся verbs.
• The Two Conjugations (Дієвідміни)A1 — Ukrainian verbs fall into two conjugation classes that determine the present and synthetic-future endings: the FIRST (перша дієвідміна) has the theme vowel -е-/-є- and the 3rd-person plural -уть/-ють (читаю, читаєш... читають; пишу, пишеш...), the SECOND (друга дієвідміна) has the theme vowel -и-/-ї- and 3rd-plural -ать/-ять (говорю, говориш, говорить... говорять; бачу, любиш) — and because the infinitive ending is unreliable, you read the class off the present theme vowel and the 3pl ending.
• Subject Pronouns Are OptionalA1 — Ukrainian is a pro-drop language: because every present-tense ending uniquely marks the subject, the pronouns я, ти, він/вона, ми, ви, вони are normally dropped (Чита́ю 'I read', Що ро́биш? 'what are you doing?'). You add them only for emphasis or contrast — but the gendered, person-blind past tense often brings the pronoun back.
• The Infinitive (-ти / -ть)A1 — The infinitive (неозна́чена фо́рма) is the dictionary form of a Ukrainian verb, ending in standard -ти (чита́ти, говори́ти, бу́ти) with a colloquial/poetic variant -ть. It carries aspect, so 'to read' splits into чита́ти (process) and прочита́ти (read through), and it follows modal and phase verbs (хо́чу чита́ти, тре́ба йти) and builds both futures.
• Present-Stem Consonant ChangesA2 — When you form the present stem, a stem-final consonant often mutates: д→дж, т→ч, з→ж, с→ш, ст→щ, and any labial (б п в м ф) inserts an epenthetic -л-. In the second conjugation this happens only in the 1sg (ходи́ти→ходжу́, but хо́диш); in the first conjugation it runs through the whole present (писа́ти→пишу́, пи́шеш…). The mutations are regular, so you can derive the tricky я-form instead of memorising it.
• Recognizing Verb Forms in the WildA2 — A practical reading skill: spotting which form a Ukrainian verb is in by its ending. The signals — present -ю/-еш/-е or -ю/-иш/-ить, past -в/-ла/-ло/-ли (gendered, no person), synthetic future -му/-меш and analytic бу́ду + infinitive, conditional past + би, imperative -й/-и, infinitive -ти, reflexive -ся — and how to strip them back to the dictionary form (lemma). The insight English speakers miss: each form wears a recognizable marker, so reading a verb is spot-the-signal, strip-it, recover the dictionary form.

Future Tense

• The Future Tense: Three RoutesA2 — Ukrainian builds the future three ways. (1) The PERFECTIVE simple future — a perfective verb's present-shaped form IS its future: прочита́ю 'I'll read it through', напишу́, зроблю́, куплю́ — one word, a single result. (2) The IMPERFECTIVE analytic future — бу́ду + an imperfective infinitive (бу́ду чита́ти), the auxiliary бу́ду/бу́деш/бу́де/бу́демо/бу́дете/бу́дуть conjugating. (3) The IMPERFECTIVE synthetic future — the infinitive fused with the enclitic -му/-меш/-ме/-мемо/-мете/-муть (чита́тиму), a one-word imperfective future that Ukrainian has and Russian lacks. So 'I will read' is прочита́ю (finish it) OR бу́ду чита́ти OR чита́тиму (ongoing); the last two are interchangeable.
• The Synthetic Future (читатиму)A2 — Ukrainian's distinctive one-word imperfective future (про́ста фо́рма майбу́тнього ча́су): take the imperfective infinitive whole — keeping its -ти — and fuse on the enclitic endings -му, -меш, -ме, -мемо, -мете, -муть. чита́ти → чита́тиму, чита́тимеш, чита́тиме, чита́тимемо, чита́тимете, чита́тимуть; говори́ти → говори́тиму; роби́ти → роби́тиму; ходи́ти → ходи́тиму. The endings descend from a fused old 'have' (я́ти); the stress stays where the infinitive carries it. It works ONLY with imperfectives (no *прочита́тиму), so it always carries ongoing/repeated meaning, and it is fully equivalent to бу́ду + infinitive — but more compact, very common, and with NO Russian counterpart.
• The Analytic Future (буду читати)A2 — The analytic (compound) imperfective future (складена фо́рма майбу́тнього ча́су): the future of бу́ти — бу́ду, бу́деш, бу́де, бу́демо, бу́дете, бу́дуть — followed by an IMPERFECTIVE infinitive, unchanged. бу́ду чита́ти, бу́деш чита́ти, бу́де чита́ти, бу́демо чита́ти, бу́дете чита́ти, бу́дуть чита́ти. The auxiliary must be the FUTURE of бу́ти (not its present), and the infinitive must be imperfective — no *бу́ду прочита́ти; a perfective forms its future synthetically as прочита́ю. бу́ду alone = 'I will be' (Я бу́ду вдо́ма); бу́ду + infinitive = 'I will be V-ing / will V'. It is fully synonymous with the synthetic чита́тиму — the safer default for learners, while -тиму is the idiomatic flourish.
• Using the Future (and Present-for-Future)B1 — When to use each future and where Ukrainian and English diverge. Perfective simple future for a single completed future result (Я зроблю́ це за́втра, Він при́йде о шо́стій). Imperfective future (бу́ду чита́ти / чита́тиму) for ongoing or repeated future action. The PRESENT-for-future with motion verbs and timetables (За́втра ї́ду до Ки́єва, По́їзд відхо́дить о п’я́тій). And the big divergence: after коли́ 'when' and якщо́ 'if' pointing to the future, Ukrainian uses the FUTURE — Коли́ при́йдеш, подзвони́ — where English keeps the present ('when you arrive').

Imperative

• The Imperative: FormationA1 — Ukrainian builds the imperative (наказо́вий спо́сіб) from the PRESENT stem. The 2sg takes -и (when stressed or after a cluster: пиши́!, неси́!), -й after a vowel (чита́й!, грай!), a soft -ь after one consonant (сядь!, будь!), or a bare consonant (роби́!). The 2pl/polite adds -те (чита́йте!, несі́ть!). There's a dedicated 1pl hortative in -мо (ході́мо! 'let's go', чита́ймо!) and a 3rd-person command with хай / неха́й (Хай іде́! 'let him go').
• Using the Imperative (Politeness and Softening)A2 — How commands land depends on form. The bare 2sg (Дай!, Іди!) is intimate or blunt; the -те plural doubles as the POLITE singular with ви (Да́йте, будь ла́ска). Softeners — будь ла́ска, прошу́, чи не могли́ б ви, дава́йте — turn an order into a request. Invitations and offers use the imperfective for warmth (Заходьте! Сіда́йте! Пригоща́йтеся!), and prohibitions take the imperfective (Не хвилю́йтеся). The хай / неха́й forms carry wishes and slogans (Неха́й щасти́ть!).
• Saying 'Let's': The 1st-Person Hortative (-мо, Ну́мо, Дава́й)A2 — How Ukrainian says 'let's'. The native, idiomatic form is the synthetic 1st-plural in -мо on the imperative stem: ході́мо 'let's go', ся́дьмо 'let's sit', заспіва́ймо 'let's sing', бу́дьмо 'cheers / let's be'. Ну́мо / Ну + verb adds urging ('come on, let's'). Дава́й(те) + future/infinitive (дава́й пі́демо, дава́йте почне́мо) is colloquial and slightly russified — ході́мо is preferred. The plain inclusive future (зро́бимо ра́зом 'we'll do it together') is the neutral everyday option.

Modality

• Expressing Modality: OverviewA2 — Ukrainian has no one-word modal auxiliaries like English can/must/should — it distributes modality across verbs and predicatives, most with a DATIVE experiencer. Ability splits: могти́ 'can (circumstantial)' (можу́, мо́жеш) vs вмі́ти 'know how to (a skill)' (вмі́ю пла́вати). Necessity has degrees: тре́ба + dative + infinitive (Мені́ тре́ба йти), му́сити 'must/be compelled' (му́шу йти), пови́нен/пови́нна 'ought' (agreeing adjective: я пови́нен, вона́ пови́нна), слід 'should'. Permission: мо́жна (Мо́жна вві́йти?), не мо́жна. Desire: хоті́ти 'want' (хо́чу), хоті́тися (impersonal Мені́ хо́четься). The key insight: English 'can' splits into могти́ vs вмі́ти, and 'must' splits into тре́ба, му́сити, and пови́нен.
• Can: Могти vs Вміти/УмітиA2 — English 'can' splits in two: могти́ (мо́жу, мо́жеш) is situational possibility, ability-in-the-moment and permission (Я мо́жу прийти́ за́втра), while вмі́ти/умі́ти (вмі́ю, вмі́єш) is a LEARNED skill, 'know how to' (Я вмі́ю пла́вати) — so 'I can swim' as a skill is вмі́ю, but 'I can swim today' as a circumstance is мо́жу.
• Must / Should: Треба, Мусити, Повинен, СлідB1 — Ukrainian splits 'must/should' by grammar AND force: тре́ба is impersonal with a DATIVE experiencer (Мені́ тре́ба йти), пови́нен is an AGREEING adjective (я пови́нен / вона́ пови́нна / ми пови́нні), му́сити conjugates as a verb and carries the strongest compulsion (Я му́шу), and слід is bookish 'one ought' — plus the negation contrasts не тре́ба (no need) vs не мо́жна (not allowed) vs не му́шу (don't have to).
• Want / Wish: Хотіти, Хотітися, БажатиA2 — Three ways to express desire: хоті́ти (хо́чу, хо́чеш) 'want' + infinitive / accusative / щоб-clause — but 'I want you to come' is impossible with an infinitive (Хо́чу, щоб ти прийшо́в, щоб + past); the impersonal хоті́тися (Мені́ хо́четься) is a softer 'I feel like'; and бажа́ти 'wish' governs the GENITIVE and supplies the well-wishing formulas (Бажа́ю успі́ху!).

Participles

• Participles and Verbal Adverbs: OverviewB1 — A map of Ukrainian's non-finite verb forms — and a stylistic warning: Ukrainian uses them LESS than Russian, preferring relative clauses (який…). The forms: passive participles (-ний/-тий: напи́саний, відкри́тий), the discouraged active participles (-чий/-лий), the verbal adverb (дієприслі́вник: -чи чита́ючи 'while reading', -вши прочита́вши 'having read'), and the idiomatic -но/-то impersonal predicate (напи́сано, зро́блено 'it has been done').
• Passive Past Participles (-ний / -тий)B1 — The passive past participle (паси́вний дієприкме́тник) — Ukrainian's main 'done/made/written' word. Formed from perfective transitive verbs in -ний/-ений (прочи́таний, напи́саний, зро́блений, побудо́ваний) or -тий (відкри́тий, забу́тий, розби́тий, ми́тий). It declines like an adjective and agrees in gender, number, and case (напи́саний лист, напи́сана запи́ска, напи́сані листи́), used attributively (зачи́нені две́рі) and predicatively (Две́рі зачи́нені). Crucially, Ukrainian reserves -ний for the resultant STATE and prefers the -но/-то impersonal (Две́рі зачи́нено) for the action itself.
• The -но / -то Impersonal PassiveB1 — The -но/-то predicative (безособо́ва фо́рма на -но/-то) is a hallmark of authentic Ukrainian that Russian lacks. Built from the passive-participle stem (прочи́тано, напи́сано, зро́блено, збудо́вано, відкри́то, забу́то), it is INVARIANT — it never agrees with anything — and forms an agentless, subjectless past passive: Кни́гу прочи́тано 'the book has been read', Робо́ту ви́конано 'the work has been completed', Вхід заборо́нено 'entry forbidden'. The logical object stays in the ACCUSATIVE (Кни́гу, not Кни́га), there is no grammatical subject, and було́ can be added for a past-perfect nuance (Робо́ту було́ ви́конано). This is the natural Ukrainian passive — everywhere in signs, news, and formal writing.
• Active Participles (and Why to Avoid Them)B2 — Active participles describe a noun by what it DOES (present, -чий/-ючий/-ачий: чита́ючий 'reading', сидя́чий 'sitting') or what it BECAME (past, -лий: пожо́вклий 'yellowed', посиві́лий 'greyed', опа́лий 'fallen'). The present active participle is widely considered un-Ukrainian, a calque from Russian — standard usage rewrites студе́нт, чита́ючий кни́гу as a relative clause студе́нт, яки́й чита́є кни́гу. The intransitive -лий resultative (зів’я́лий 'wilted', змарні́лий) is genuine and adjective-like. This page teaches recognition for reading and the rewrite habit for writing good Ukrainian.
• Participles vs Relative Clauses: A Style GuideB2 — A consolidating style page on choosing between participles and relative clauses for good Ukrainian. The rule of thumb: PASSIVE past participles are fine attributively (напи́саний лист, зачи́нені двері); the agentless -но/-то form is the go-to for 'was done' (зро́блено); the verbal adverb is good for same-subject reductions (зроби́вши). But the PRESENT ACTIVE participle (чита́ючий, працю́ючий, зроста́ючий) is a Russian calque — standard Ukrainian REWRITES it as a relative clause with який or що (студе́нт, яки́й чита́є, NOT *чита́ючий студе́нт). This page gives the keep-list, the rewrite table (active participle → який-clause), and the single style habit that fixes most translated-from-Russian prose.

Past Tense

• The Past Tense: FormationA1 — The Ukrainian past tense is GENDERED, not person-marked. From the infinitive stem you add -в (masculine), -ла (feminine), -ло (neuter), -ли (plural): чита́в / чита́ла / чита́ло / чита́ли. The same form serves 1st, 2nd and 3rd person of one gender, so я чита́в, ти чита́в, він чита́в are identical — and a female speaker says я чита́ла. The masculine -в comes from a historical -л and is pronounced /w/. The verb 'to be' has був / була́ / було́ / були́, which also serves as the past auxiliary.
• Past-Tense Quirks: -в, Vanishing Suffix, Consonant StemsA2 — The masculine past -в is the regular reflex of an old -л (kept in the fem/neut/pl: чита́в but чита́ла) and is pronounced /w/. Consonant-stem verbs are the wrinkle: their masculine DROPS the -в and shows a bare consonant, often with an о→і shift — нести́→ніс/несла́, могти́→міг/могла́, везти́→ві́з/везла́, пекти́→пік/пекла́. The feminine -ла restores the full stem, so pairing masc/fem (ніс / несла́) reveals the pattern. -ну- verbs may drop the suffix in the masculine (зме́рзнути→зме́рз) or keep it (ки́нути→ки́нув).
• Using the Past Tense (with Aspect)A2 — Ukrainian has only ONE simple past form — there is no separate preterite, imperfect, and perfect like Romance or English. Instead, ASPECT carries the whole load: the imperfective past (чита́в) covers process, habit, and naming an activity, while the perfective past (прочита́в) reports a single completed result or a sequenced event. So 'I was reading / I used to read / I read / I have read / I had read' all collapse onto чита́в or прочита́в depending on aspect. The page also covers past gender agreement, the бути + instrumental predicate (Він був студе́нтом), impersonal/weather pasts (Йшов дощ, Було́ хо́лодно), and the rare був + past pluperfect.
• The Pluperfect (Давноминулий час)C1 — The давномину́лий час — Ukrainian's living pluperfect, largely lost in Russian — is built from the past of бути (був / була́ / було́ / були́) + the main verb in the past: Я був прочита́в кни́жку. It marks an action completed BEFORE another past action (a true 'past-before-past'), but its most distinctive job is the 'cancelled' or reversed past: був почав, але кинув 'had started, but quit'; була́ пішла́, та поверну́лася 'had set off, but came back'. It is commoner in literature and western dialects than in casual eastern speech, where the plain past plus context usually substitutes.
• Past Tense of Irregular and Consonant-Stem VerbsB1 — A consolidated reference for the masculine pasts that look irregular. Consonant-stem verbs form a BARE masculine with no -в (нести́ → ніс, везти́ → віз, могти́ → міг, пекти́ → пік, берегти́ → беріг, лягти́ → ліг, бі́гти → біг), often with an о/і or е/і shift in the closed syllable, while the feminine restores the stem (несла́, везла́, могла́, пекла́, берегла́, лягла́, бі́гла). Plus the suppletive ішо́в/йшов 'went' and the -ну- droppers (зме́рзнути → зме́рз). Cross-links the л→в page.

Present Tense

• The Present Tense: OverviewA1 — The present tense (тепе́рішній час) is formed only from imperfective verbs — perfectives have no present, their 'present' form is actually future. One Ukrainian form covers English 'I read', 'I am reading' and 'I do read' (no progressive/simple split), the subject pronoun is usually dropped, and the verb 'to be' has no present form in neutral statements (Він студе́нт, not *Він є студе́нт).
• Present Tense: First ConjugationA1 — The first conjugation (пе́рша дієвідмі́на) takes the present endings -у/-ю, -еш/-єш, -е/-є, -емо/-ємо, -ете/-єте, -уть/-ють, built on the theme vowel -е-/-є- with a 3pl in -уть/-ють. Drill three models: vowel-stem чита́ти (чита́ю, чита́єш…), consonant-stem нести́ (несу́, несе́ш…), mutating писа́ти (пишу́, пи́шеш…), могти́ (можу́…), and the huge -увати/-ювати class (працюва́ти → працю́ю).
• Present Tense: Second ConjugationA1 — The second conjugation (друга дієвідміна) takes the present endings -у/-ю, -иш/-їш, -ить/-їть, -имо/-їмо, -ите/-їте, -ать/-ять, built on the theme vowel -и-/-ї- with a 3pl in -ать/-ять. Drill three models: regular говори́ти (говорю́, гово́риш, гово́рить… гово́рять), labial+л in the 1sg люби́ти (люблю́, лю́биш… лю́блять), and dental mutation in the 1sg ходи́ти (ходжу́, хо́диш… хо́дять) and ба́чити (ба́чу, ба́чиш… ба́чать — -ать, not -ять, after the hushing ч). The key insight: the mutation is confined to the я-form.
• The Present of Бути (and the Missing Copula)A1 — Ukrainian normally has NO present-tense 'to be': Він студе́нт 'he is a student', Я вдо́ма 'I'm home' — the copula simply disappears, often replaced in writing by a dash (Київ — столи́ця). The single present form є exists for all persons but is used sparingly: for existence and possession (У ме́не є час 'I have time'), for emphasis or formal definitions (Украї́на є незале́жною держа́вою), and it negates to нема́є + genitive (нема́є ча́су). Inserting є everywhere is a beginner error; forgetting it in 'у ме́не є…' is the opposite error.
• Irregular Present Verbs (Дати, Їсти, Бути, Хотіти)A2 — The handful of verbs that fit neither conjugation. Ukrainian preserves the old athematic verbs да́ти (дам, даси́, дасть, дамо́, дасте́, даду́ть) and ї́сти (їм, їси́, їсть, їмо́, їсте́, їдя́ть) and their compounds (відповісти́ → відпові́м, розповісти́), whose endings must be learned whole and which keep the archaic -ть in дасть/їсть/відпові́сть. Plus the mixed-pattern хоті́ти (хо́чу, хо́чеш, хо́че… хо́чуть), the future of бу́ти (бу́ду, бу́деш…), the high-frequency ма́ти (ма́ю, ма́єш) and бі́гти (біжу́, біжи́ш… біжа́ть).
• Using the Present TenseA2 — When to use the Ukrainian present, which — being imperfective-only — naturally covers BOTH 'I am reading' and 'I read (habitually)'. It expresses ongoing action now (За́раз я чита́ю), habit and repetition (Я щора́нку п’ю ка́ву), general truths (Вода́ кипи́ть при ста гра́дусах), the scheduled/planned near future with motion and time verbs (За́втра ї́демо до Ки́єва), the narrative/historical present in storytelling, and the present in time clauses (Коли́ чита́ю, слу́хаю му́зику). It CANNOT express a completed-now event — that forces the perfective past or future (Я прочита́ю книжку).
• Verbs in -увати/-ювати: The Borrowing FactoryA2 — The productive -ува́ти/-юва́ти class — the bin Ukrainian uses for borrowings and many native verbs. In the present, the suffix -ува-/-юва- contracts to -у-/-ю- (працюва́ти → працю́ю, малюва́ти → малю́ю, дя́кувати → дя́кую, керува́ти → керу́ю), so the present looks shorter than the infinitive; the past keeps the full -ува- (працюва́в). This is the class new and biaspectual verbs join, so the pattern is high-yield.
• The First Verbs to LearnA1 — The eighteen highest-frequency verbs an A1 learner actually needs — бу́ти (dropped/є), ма́ти and the 'у ме́не є' possession idiom, хоті́ти (хо́чу), могти́ (мо́жу), знати (зна́ю), роби́ти (роблю́), іти́/ходи́ти, ї́сти (їм), пи́ти (п’ю), говори́ти/каза́ти, чита́ти, писа́ти (пишу́), ба́чити (ба́чу), люби́ти (люблю́), жи́ти (живу́), працюва́ти (працю́ю), дя́кувати — with their 1sg/2sg present forms and aspect partners. These first verbs concentrate every tricky feature of the system: the missing copula, dative possession, the athematic їм/п’ю, the labial -л- in роблю́/люблю́, and the dative government of дя́кую.

Reflexive & Voice

• Reflexive Verbs (-ся): OverviewA2 — The postfix -ся is a single fused ending that attaches AFTER the personal ending (умива́юся, умива́єшся, умива́ється) and is always written together. It covers far more than 'oneself': true reflexive (ми́тися 'wash oneself'), reciprocal (зустріча́тися 'meet each other'), passive/middle (буди́нок буду́ється 'the house is being built'), inherent intransitives English never marks (смія́тися 'laugh', боя́тися 'fear', подо́батися 'be pleasing'), and verbs that exist ONLY with -ся (пиша́тися 'be proud', сподіва́тися 'hope'). The colloquial/poetic variant -сь appears after a vowel (умива́юсь). This page maps the form and the five meaning families.
• The Many Meanings of -сяB1 — A deep dive into what -ся actually does. Five jobs: REFLEXIVE (Він ми́ється 'washes himself'), RECIPROCAL (Вони́ сва́ряться 'they quarrel'), PASSIVE/MIDDLE (Кни́га легко́ чита́ється 'the book reads easily', Як це пи́шеться? 'how is this spelled?'), INHERENT (смія́тися, боя́тися+gen, надія́тися), and MEANING-CHANGING pairs where -ся flips the sense entirely: вчи́ти 'teach' → вчи́тися 'learn', знахо́дити 'find' → знахо́дитися 'be located', розхо́дитися 'disperse'. The big lesson: -ся is a multifunctional derivational tool, not just 'oneself' — so a verb's with-/without-ся forms must be learned as two different verbs, some take the genitive, and the passive -ся needs no agent.
• The Passive Voice in UkrainianB2 — Ukrainian has NO all-purpose 'be + past participle' passive. It expresses the passive by three native routes: (1) the invariant -но/-то impersonal for completed past actions (Кни́гу напи́сано, Мі́сто засно́вано) — the idiomatic default; (2) the -ся reflexive passive for ongoing imperfective processes (Буди́нок буду́ється, Хліб пече́ться); (3) бути + passive participle (Кни́га напи́сана / була́ напи́сана), which leans toward a resultant STATE and sounds bookish as a true passive. The named agent, when present, takes the INSTRUMENTAL (рома́н напи́саний письме́нником), never a 'by'-preposition. Above all, Ukrainian prefers ACTIVE recasting — translating an English passive usually means choosing a Ukrainian-native route, not calquing be+participle.
• Impersonal Verb ConstructionsB1 — Безособо́ві ре́чення — sentences with NO grammatical subject, which Ukrainian uses constantly. Six types: weather/nature (Світа́є, Похолода́ло, Сніжи́ть); states with a DATIVE experiencer (Мені́ хо́лодно, Йому́ пога́но, Хо́четься спа́ти); modal predicatives (Тре́ба йти, Мо́жна?, Не мо́жна, Слід поду́мати); the -но/-то passive (Зро́блено); existence/absence with нема́є + genitive (Гро́шей нема́є); and the agentless 3rd-plural 'they/people' (Ка́жуть, що...). The key insight: where English inserts a dummy 'it' or 'one/you', Ukrainian drops the subject entirely and makes the experiencer DATIVE — 'I'm cold' is Мені́ хо́лодно (literally 'to-me cold'), 'I feel like sleeping' is Мені́ хо́четься спа́ти.
• The -ся Passive and Middle Voice in DepthB2 — A deep dive into the -ся passive — the imperfective, process-focused, agentless passive of Ukrainian. The reflexive-passive turns an imperfective verb's object into a NOMINATIVE subject and lets the action happen TO it with no named doer: Буди́нок буду́ється 'the building is being built', Кни́га до́бре продає́ться 'the book sells well', Двері легко́ відчиня́ються, Як це пи́шеться? 'how is this spelled?'. It is overwhelmingly IMPERFECTIVE (a process), keeps a nominative subject, and resists an expressed agent — which is exactly how it divides labour with the perfective, accusative-object -но/-то impersonal (Буди́нок збудо́вано 'the building has been built'). This page sorts passive -ся from middle -ся and true-reflexive -ся, and shows when each route is the right one.

Tricky Verbs

• Бути: The Complete PictureA2 — Ukrainian's verb 'to be' is defective in the present — normally omitted (Він студе́нт) with a single form є kept for existence and possession (У ме́не є…) — but fully inflected in the past (був, була́, було́, були́) and future (бу́ду, бу́деш, бу́де…), where the predicate noun switches from nominative to INSTRUMENTAL (Він був учи́телем); бу́ду also doubles as the future auxiliary (бу́ду чита́ти), and existence is negated with нема́є + genitive.
• Having: Мати vs У мене єA2 — Ukrainian has two ways to say 'I have': ма́ти + accusative (Я ма́ю маши́ну) and the more colloquial у + genitive + є + nominative (У ме́не є маши́на, literally 'at me there is a car'); ма́ти also carries obligation (ма́ю йти 'I have to go') and survives in idioms (ма́єш ра́цію 'you're right'), and BOTH negate with нема́є / не ма́ю + genitive (У ме́не нема́є ча́су), so the noun flips to the genitive when you don't have it.
• Knowing: Знати vs Вміти vs УявлятиB1 — English splits across three Ukrainian verbs: зна́ти is for facts, information and people (зна́ю мо́ву, зна́ю Оле́ну, зна́ю, що…) — Ukrainian does NOT split 'know a fact' from 'know a person' the way savoir/connaître does; вмі́ти/умі́ти is for a learned SKILL plus an infinitive (вмі́ю пла́вати); and уявля́ти is 'to imagine, picture' (уявля́ю собі́), so 'I know how to drive' is вмі́ю, not зна́ю.
• Speaking: Говорити, Казати, Розмовляти, СказатиB1 — English 'talk / speak / say / tell' maps onto four Ukrainian verbs: говори́ти 'speak/talk' (and 'speak a language' — українською, bare instrumental!), розмовля́ти 'have a conversation' (+ з + instrumental), and the everyday aspect pair каза́ти/сказа́ти 'say/tell' (+ dative + що-clause) — so a single 'he said' is Він сказа́в, while 'I speak Ukrainian' is Я говорю́ украї́нською.
• Becoming: Ставати/Стати and the InstrumentalB1 — 'Become X' in Ukrainian puts X in the INSTRUMENTAL: став лі́карем 'became a doctor', хо́чу ста́ти програмі́стом — never the nominative. The aspect pair става́ти/ста́ти (стаю́ / ста́ну) governs the instrumental predicate, while the impersonal стало + adverb means 'it got ADJ' (ста́ло те́мно 'it got dark'). Same rule covers залиша́тися 'remain' and виявля́тися 'turn out to be'.
• Putting Things: Ставити, Класти, ВішатиB1 — English 'put' splits three ways in Ukrainian, chosen by the object's RESTING POSTURE: кла́сти/покла́сти 'lay flat' (покла́сти кни́гу на стіл), ста́вити/поста́вити 'stand upright' (поста́вити ва́зу на стіл), ві́шати/пові́сити 'hang' (пові́сити карти́ну на сті́ну). All three take an accusative object + directional на/в + ACCUSATIVE (motion to a goal). Their state-verb mirrors are лежа́ти / стоя́ти / висі́ти 'lie / stand / hang', which take на/в + LOCATIVE (location).
• Managing and Succeeding: Встигати, Вдаватися, ЩаститиB2 — Ukrainian's 'manage / succeed / be lucky' verbs are mostly DATIVE-experiencer impersonals: вдава́тися/вда́тися + DATIVE + infinitive 'manage/succeed' (Мені́ вда́лося переконати її́), щасти́ти/талани́ти + DATIVE 'be lucky' (Мені́ щасти́ть), with no nominative 'I'. The one personal exception is встига́ти/всти́гнути 'make it / manage in time' (Я всти́г на по́тяг), and the 'achieve' pair досяга́ти/досягти́ + GENITIVE (досягти́ мети́) plus домага́тися + genitive 'press for / obtain'.

Verb Government

• Verb Government: Which Case for the ObjectB1 — Most Ukrainian verbs take an accusative object (читаю книгу), but a large core group governs the dative (дякую тобі, допомагаю мамі), the genitive (боюся темряви, потребую допомоги), or the instrumental (керую фірмою, ціка́влюся історією) — and the governed case is a fixed lexical property of each verb that English speakers must memorise, because none of these behave like English transitives.
• Verbs with Fixed PrepositionsB2 — A high-error group of Ukrainian verbs requires a specific preposition plus a fixed case that rarely maps to English: чека́ти НА + acc 'wait for', дивитися НА + acc 'look at', думати ПРО + acc 'think about', одружи́тися З + instr 'marry', готува́тися ДО + gen 'prepare for', зале́жати ВІД + gen 'depend on', вступи́ти ДО + gen 'enter (university)' — so each verb+preposition+case is a fixed chunk you must learn whole.
• Verbs Taking an InfinitiveB1 — Which verbs take a bare infinitive — modal, phase, and desire verbs (могти́, вмі́ти, хоті́ти, му́сити, поча́ти, переста́ти, продо́вжувати, люблю́ чита́ти, вчу́ся пла́вати), plus trying/managing verbs (намага́тися, спро́бувати, встига́ти) — governed by the rule that the infinitive needs the SAME subject; as soon as the subjects differ you must switch to щоб + past (хо́чу, щоб ти пішо́в).
• Verbs with a Dative ExperiencerB1 — A cluster of verbs and predicatives put the EXPERIENCER in the dative, with either an impersonal verb or a nominative thing as grammatical subject: Мені́ подо́бається фільм 'I like the film', Мені́ вдало́ся 'I managed', Мені́ хо́четься 'I feel like', Мені́ браку́є ча́су 'I'm short of time', Мені́ сни́ться сон 'I'm dreaming', Мені́ тре́ба йти 'I have to go'. The English subject 'I' becomes мені́, and the verb agrees with the thing or stays impersonal.
• Government of Reflexive (-ся) VerbsB2 — Reflexive -ся verbs carry their own fixed case government that almost never matches the English preposition: боя́тися and дотри́муватися take the genitive, цікавитися and користуватися the instrumental, дивува́тися the dative, while сподіва́тися takes на + accusative and одружи́тися з + instrumental — so each -ся verb's case must be memorised as a chunk.

Verbal Adverbs

• Verbal Adverbs: Imperfective (-чи / -ючи)B1 — The imperfective verbal adverb (дієприслі́вник недоко́наного ви́ду) is formed from the present stem + -чи/-ючи/-ачи (чита́ючи 'while reading', ідучи́ 'while walking', говоря́чи, сидя́чи) and -чись for reflexives (посміха́ючись). It expresses an action SIMULTANEOUS with the main verb and shares its subject: Ідучи́ додо́му, я зустрі́в дру́га 'walking home, I met a friend'. It is invariant (no agreement). The same-subject rule is strict: the doer of the verbal adverb must be the main clause's subject, exactly the English dangling-participle rule (no *Поверта́ючись додо́му, пішо́в дощ).
• Verbal Adverbs: Perfective (-вши / -ши)B2 — The perfective verbal adverb (дієприслі́вник доко́наного ви́ду) is formed from the past/infinitive stem + -вши/-ши (прочита́вши 'having read', зроби́вши 'having done', прийшо́вши 'having arrived', сівши 'having sat down', прині́сши with a consonant stem + -ши). It expresses an action COMPLETED BEFORE the main verb, same subject: Прочита́вши кни́гу, він поверну́в її 'having read the book, he returned it'. Aspect sets the time relation: -вши perfective = prior action ('after / having done'); -ючи imperfective = simultaneous ('while doing'). The same-subject rule applies exactly as for the imperfective form.

Verbs of Motion

• Verbs of Motion: OverviewA2 — A single English 'go' splits into FOUR base verbs by mode (on foot іти́/ходи́ти vs by vehicle ї́хати/ї́здити) AND directionality — unidirectional (one trip, one way, in progress: іду́) vs multidirectional (habitual, round-trip, general: ходжу́). This base two-by-two of mode × direction is the foundation of the whole motion system, before prefixes (прийти́, піти́, ви́йти) add direction and aspect on top.
• Іти vs Ходити (Go on Foot)A2 — The foot-motion pair. ІТИ́ (іду́, іде́ш; past ішо́в/йшов, ішла́) = ONE trip in one direction, now or planned: Я йду́ в шко́лу. ХОДИ́ТИ (хо́джу, хо́диш; past ходи́в, ходи́ла) = habitual/repeated, round-trip, or 'be able to walk': Я хо́джу до шко́ли щодня́; Дити́на вже хо́дить. Past subtlety: ходи́в = went and came back; ішо́в/йшов = was on the way.
• Їхати vs Їздити (Go by Vehicle)A2 — The vehicle-motion pair. ЇХАТИ (їду, їдеш; past їхав) = ONE trip by vehicle, now or planned: Я їду до Києва; Завтра їду до Львова. ЇЗДИТИ (їжджу [note дж], їздиш; past їздив) = habitual/repeated, commute, or round-trip: Я їжджу на роботу автобусом; Учора я їздив до бабусі. The means of transport is INSTRUMENTAL (потягом, автобусом, машиною), not a 'by'-phrase.
• Other Motion Pairs (Летіти/Літати, Нести/Носити, Везти/Возити)B1 — The same unidirectional/multidirectional logic extends beyond go-on-foot and go-by-vehicle: fly (леті́ти/літа́ти), run (бі́гти/бі́гати), swim (пливти́/пла́вати), plus the transitive carry-triple — нести́/носи́ти (carry in hands), ве́зти/вози́ти (transport by vehicle), вести́/води́ти (lead). Two idioms to lock in: носи́ти = 'to wear' (ношу́ окуля́ри) and води́ти маши́ну = 'to drive' (skill). General ability and generic statements take the MULTIdirectional (Я вмі́ю пла́вати; Пта́хи літа́ють).
• Prefixed Verbs of Motion: OverviewB1 — A directional prefix transforms a motion verb on two levels at once. On the UNIDIRECTIONAL stem it makes a PERFECTIVE (прийти́ 'arrive', ви́йти 'go out'); the SAME prefix on the MULTIDIRECTIONAL stem makes the matching IMPERFECTIVE (прихо́дити, вихо́дити). Each prefix has a consistent meaning across all motion verbs — при- arrive/toward, ви- out, за- drop by/behind, пере- across/relocate, до- reach, від- away, про- through/past, об- around, в-/у- in, з-/ді- down/off — so learning ~10 prefixes once unlocks all prefixed motion.
• Піти, Поїхати and the Inceptive По-B1 — The high-frequency inceptive по- verbs that mean 'set off / head off'. ПІТИ́ (perfective, по+іти́): set out on foot — Він пішо́в додо́му 'he went/left home', Я піду́ за́втра 'I'll go tomorrow', and the idiomatic Ході́мо! / Пішли́! 'let's go!'. ПОЇ́ХАТИ (perfective): set off by vehicle — Вони́ пої́хали до Льво́ва 'they went/left for Lviv'. These are the DEFAULT way to say someone 'went (off)' as a single completed departure — distinct from round-trip ходи́в and on-the-way ішо́в.
• Choosing the Right Motion Verb: SummaryB1 — The whole motion system reduced to a decision tree. (1) On foot or by vehicle? → іти́/ходи́ти vs ї́хати/ї́здити (or the carry-triple). (2) One trip in progress / planned now? → unidirectional (іду́, ї́ду). (3) Habit, repetition, round-trip, or general ability? → multidirectional (хо́джу, ї́жджу). (4) Single completed directed motion? → prefixed perfective (прийшо́в, пої́хав, ви́йшов). (5) Habitual prefixed motion? → prefixed imperfective (прихо́дить, виїжджа́є). Plus three special rules: general ability→multi, 'set off'→perfective по-, past round-trip→multi.

• Word Formation: How Ukrainian Builds WordsB1 — Orientation to словотві́р, Ukrainian word-building — the four engines that let you decode and create vocabulary instead of memorising it one word at a time: PREFIXES (за-, пере-, не-, роз-), SUFFIXES (the productive workhorse: учи́тель, чита́ч, шви́дкість, чита́ння), COMPOUNDING with the linking vowel -о-/-е- (землеро́б, життє́пис, паропла́в), and conversion. From one root like ро́бота 'work' you get робітни́к 'worker', робо́чий 'working', заробля́ти 'to earn', переробля́ти 'to redo' — so learning the affix toolkit multiplies your vocabulary.
• Noun-Forming Suffixes (-ник, -ач, -ість, -ення, -ство)B1 — The productive suffixes that build nouns — and the insight that each one tells you the word's MEANING TYPE and GENDER at once. AGENT (male, masculine): -ник (робітни́к), -ач/-яч (чита́ч), -ар/-яр (бібліоте́кар), -ець (украї́нець). FEMALE counterpart (feminine): -ка/-иця (вчи́телька, робітни́ця). ABSTRACT QUALITY (always feminine): -ість (шви́дкість, незале́жність), -ство, -ота. ACTION / RESULT (neuter, doubled -нн-): -ння/-ення/-ання (чита́ння, завда́ння, рі́шення). So reading the suffix predicts both sense and gender, and lets you form the feminine of any profession.
• Adjective and Adverb SuffixesB2 — The suffixes that turn nouns and verbs into adjectives, and adjectives into adverbs — and the insight English speakers miss: where English glues two nouns together ('school bag', 'wooden table'), Ukrainian must first turn the first noun into an adjective (шкільни́й рюкза́к, дерев’я́ний стіл). RELATIONAL: -н(ий) (лісни́й), -ов-/-ев- (бузко́вий), -ськ-/-цьк-/-зьк- (украї́нський, коза́цький, пра́зький, with consonant changes). MATERIAL: -ан-/-ян- (дерев’я́ний). QUALITY: -лив- (щасли́вий), -ист-/-аст- (барви́стий), -уват- 'somewhat' (синюва́тий). AFFECTIONATE: -еньк-/-есеньк- (гарне́нький). ADVERBS: -о/-е (га́рно, до́бре) and по-…-ому/-ськи (по-украї́нському, по-украї́нськи).
• Verb Prefixes and Their MeaningsB1 — A catalogue of the main verb prefixes and the consistent core meanings they carry across the whole lexicon. в-/у- 'in' (увійти́), ви- 'out / completion' (ви́йти, ви́писати), з-/с-/зі- 'down/off/together' (зійти́, з’ї́сти), при- 'arrival / attach' (прийти́, прикле́їти), від- 'away / back' (відійти́, відпові́сти), за- 'behind / begin / cover' (зайти́, заспіва́ти, записа́ти), пере- 'across / re-' (перейти́, переписа́ти), роз- 'apart / un-' (розійти́ся, розв’яза́ти), до- 'up to / add' (дописа́ти), під- 'up to / under' (підійти́, підписа́ти), по- 'a bit / start / distributive' (поспа́ти, побі́гти), про- 'through / past / miss' (пройти́, проспа́ти 'oversleep'), о-/об- 'around' (обійти́). Each prefix both perfectivises the verb and adds its meaning — so learning ~15 prefixes lets you DECODE prefixed verbs across the lexicon.
• Forming Diminutives and AugmentativesB1 — The morphology of evaluative derivation. DIMINUTIVE noun suffixes are gender-specific — masc -ок/-ик/-чик/-очок (сино́к, ко́тик, садо́чок), fem -ка/-очка/-ечка/-онька (кві́точка, ру́чка, голі́вонька), neut -ко/-ечко/-атко (со́нечко, відерце́, дитинча́тко) — and they CHAIN for increasing tenderness (рука́→ру́чка→рученя́та). Adjectives and adverbs diminutivise too with -еньк-/-есеньк- (гарне́нький, тихе́нько, малесе́нький). AUGMENTATIVE / pejorative -ище, -исько, -юга add bigness or contempt (доми́ще, вовчи́ще, зміюка). And the diminutive suffix -к- triggers consonant changes: рука́→ру́чка (к→ч), нога́→ні́жка (г→ж + о→і), му́ха→му́шка (х→ш).
• Compounding and Word BlendingB2 — How Ukrainian fuses two roots into one word. The signature device is the LINKING VOWEL -о-/-е- joining two stems (земл-е-ро́б 'farmer', пар-о-пла́в 'steamboat', сір-о-о́кий 'grey-eyed', життє-ра́дісний 'cheerful'). The choice is by rule: -о- after a hard stem, -е- after a soft or hushing stem. Numeral compounds fuse a number with a noun/adjective in one word (двоповерхо́вий 'two-storey', трику́тник 'triangle'). Coordinate pairs of equal rank take a HYPHEN (си́ньо-жо́втий 'blue-and-yellow', украї́но-по́льський). Abbreviation compounds clip and fuse (виш, профспі́лка, ВНЗ). And juxtaposition pairs two whole nouns (дива́н-лі́жко 'sofa-bed').

Alphabet

• The Ukrainian AlphabetA1 — All 33 letters of the modern Ukrainian Cyrillic alphabet — their printed forms, names, and approximate sounds — sorted into the familiar friends, the dangerous false friends that look Latin but aren't, and the brand-new shapes, plus the four letters (і ї є ґ) that mark Ukrainian apart from Russian at a glance.
• Letters and Their SoundsA1 — A systematic letter-to-sound table for the citation value of every Ukrainian letter — the iotated vowels я є ю ї, the two i-letters (і = /i/, и = /ɪ/), the voiced-h г versus the hard-g ґ, the rough х, and the sounds Ukrainian simply does not have.
• І, И, and Ї: The Three i-SoundsA1 — The trio і / и / ї is the feature English learners — and Russian-trained learners especially — get wrong most: і = /i/ (a clear 'ee' that softens the consonant before it), и = /ɪ/ (the hard central 'bit' vowel that does not soften), and ї = /ji/ (always iotated, never after a consonant).
• The Soft Sign ЬA1 — The soft sign ь (м’який знак) spells no sound of its own — it marks that the preceding consonant is soft (palatalized). It appears word-finally and before consonants, only after д т з с ц л н дз, never after a vowel or at the start of a word, and it is the exact opposite of the apostrophe.
• The Apostrophe (Апостроф)A1 — The Ukrainian apostrophe ’ is a full orthographic sign, not punctuation: it marks that a hard consonant is followed by an iotated vowel (я ю є ї) pronounced with a clear /j/ glide — blocking the softening that would otherwise happen. It is written after the labials б п в м ф and after р, and after consonant-final prefixes.
• Г vs Ґ: The Two g-LettersA2 — Why Ukrainian has two g-letters — the breathy г (/ɦ/) of the everyday vocabulary versus the hard plosive ґ (/g/) of a small, learnable word list — plus the Soviet ban that explains why older texts drop ґ entirely.
• The Iotated Vowels Я Є Ю ЇA2 — How я, є, ю and ї each do two jobs — softening the consonant before them versus spelling a full /j/ glide at the start of a syllable — plus why Ukrainian є and е are distributed the opposite way from Russian.
• Ukrainian Cursive and HandwritingA2 — A reading-and-basic-forming guide to handwritten Ukrainian: the cursive shapes that diverge sharply from print (т like Latin m, д like g), the ambiguous hump-strings, and why Ukrainian's dotted і, ї, є, ґ make its cursive easier to decode than Russian's.
• Reading Your First Ukrainian WordsA1 — A practical first-reading page that takes you from individual letters to decoding real Ukrainian words — friend-letters, false friends, and cognates — while pinning down the i/y contrast and the apostrophe before bad habits set in.
• Letter Names and Spelling Words AloudA1 — The NAMES of the 33 Ukrainian letters — what you say to spell a word out loud. Vowel names are their own sound (а, е, и, і, о, у, я, є, ю, ї); consonants are бе, ве, ге, ґе, де, же, зе, ка, ел, ем, ен, пе, ер, ес, те, еф, ха, це, че, ша, ща, йот; the soft sign is м’яки́й знак and the apostrophe is апостро́ф. How to spell your name on the phone — по лі́терах.

Practical

• Typing Ukrainian: Keyboard LayoutsA2 — How to type Ukrainian Cyrillic: the standard ЙЦУКЕН layout, exactly how it differs from the Russian one (no ы/ъ/э/ё; dedicated keys for і, ї, є, ґ), where the apostrophe lives, the 'Enhanced' layout that fixes it, and how to enable Ukrainian on every OS.
• Ukrainian Punctuation and Quotation MarksB1 — The punctuation conventions that differ from English: guillemets « » for quotes, the dash for dialogue, the dash that replaces a missing 'is', the obligatory comma before що / який / щоб / бо / коли, the decimal comma, and the lowercase months, days, and nationalities.
• Capitalization RulesB1 — Ukrainian capitalization differs sharply from English: days, months, nationalities, and languages are all lowercase, and titles capitalize only the first word — the mirror image of English habits.
• Transliteration and RomanizationB2 — How Ukrainian is written in Latin letters for names, URLs, and passports — the official 2010 national system versus scholarly ISO 9, and why Kyiv, Lviv, Kharkiv and Odesa are romanized from Ukrainian, not Russian.
• Alphabetical Order and Using DictionariesA2 — The exact 33-letter Ukrainian collation order (а б в г ґ д е є ж з и і ї й… ь ю я) — with ґ right after г, є after е, then и before і before ї, and ь near the end — plus the real skill of dictionary lookup: recovering the headword (infinitive for verbs, nominative singular for nouns) before you can find anything.
• Abbreviations and Common ShorteningsB1 — The everyday Ukrainian abbreviations you meet constantly in real texts and signage: і т. д. (etc.), напр. (e.g.), див. (see), стор. / с. (p.), р. and рр. (year/years), ст. (century), the address shortenings м. (city) and вул. (street), грн and тис. for prices — with their exact periods, spacing, and the non-breaking-space convention.