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Hindi Grammar Guide

Welcome to the Elon.io Hindi Grammar Guide. 735 topics across every area of Hindi grammar, tagged by CEFR level so you can find the right page for your level.

A196 pagesA2233 pagesB1209 pagesB2105 pagesC174 pagesC218 pages

Start Here (A1)

New to Hindi? These are the foundation topics every beginner needs.

Learner Paths

CEFR Paths

Adjectives

Agreement

Comparison

  • Comparatives with सेB1 — Build unequal comparisons with an oblique standard plus से, while making the adjective agree with the item being described.
  • Superlatives with सबसेB1 — Use सबसे before an adjective to select the highest or lowest member of a contextually defined comparison set.
  • Analytic degree with अधिक and कमB1 — Use invariant अधिक and कम before adjectives for formal more and neutral less, while preserving ordinary adjective agreement.

Degree

Derivation

Lexical Classes

Modification

Nominal Use

Numeral Adjectives

  • Ordinal adjectives and agreementB1 — Form and agree Hindi ordinal adjectives such as पहला, दूसरा, and पाँचवाँ across gender, number, and case.

Participial Adjectives

  • Participles used as adjectivesB2 — Use habitual, perfective, and हुआ-based participles as agreeing modifiers while distinguishing event structure from lexical adjective meaning.

Syntax

  • Attributive adjectivesA2 — Place adjectives inside Hindi noun phrases, normally before the head noun, with the agreement required by the adjective's class.
  • Predicative adjectives with होनाA2 — Build clauses in which an adjective describes the subject through present, past, or future forms of होना.
  • Adjective order in noun phrasesA2 — Arrange determiners, quantities, degree phrases, descriptive adjectives, classifying modifiers, and the head noun in natural Hindi order.
  • Postposed adjectives and marked focusA2 — Interpret adjectives after a Hindi noun as predicates, secondary descriptions, contrastive focus, afterthoughts, or marked literary epithets.

Adverbs

Degree

Focus

Formation

Foundations

  • Adverb position in neutral clausesA1 — Place Hindi time, place, manner, and degree expressions naturally before the clause-final predicate while preserving their intended scope.

Frequency

Manner

Place

Polarity

  • Negative-polarity adverbsB2 — Use कभी, कहीं, ज़रा भी, कतई, and related expressions in negatives, questions, conditions, and other non-affirmative environments.

Reduplication

Stance

Time

Annotated Texts

Dialogues

  • Original dialogue: meeting someone politelyA1 — Read and analyze an original first-meeting dialogue built from respectful आप, introductions, source phrases, agreement, and natural conversational omission.
  • Original dialogue: family and daily routineA1 — Read and analyze an original conversation about a family's day, with habitual agreement, honorific family reference, reflexive अपना, time phrases, and natural ellipsis.
  • Original dialogue: asking for directionsA2 — Read and analyze an original street-direction dialogue built from polite imperatives, spatial postpositions, landmarks, and context-driven omission.
  • Original dialogue: buying a train ticketA2 — Read and analyze an original ticket-counter exchange using elliptical noun phrases, relative–correlative reference, prices, availability, and polite instructions.
  • Original dialogue: doctor and patientA2 — Read and analyze an original clinic dialogue using experiencer constructions, symptom agreement, respectful examination instructions, and conditional safety language.
  • Original dialogue: making and declining plansA2 — Read and analyze an original friends' conversation using suggestions, softened refusal, inability, schedule negotiation, and decisive vector verbs.

Formal Prose

Institutional Prose

Literary Prose

  • Public-domain Premchand prose excerptB2 — Read the opening of Premchand's Eidgah through temporal framing, parallel description, marked word order, and the imaginative मानो clause.

Narratives

  • Original narrative: a missed busA2 — Read and analyze an original missed-bus narrative using event sequencing, perfective alignment, the pluperfect, prospective past, and a present-day coda.
  • Original narrative: a childhood memoryB1 — Read an original childhood memory through past time, narrative aspect, clause chaining, respectful agreement, and the return from remembered events to the present.

News

Poetry and Proverbs

Practical Texts

Aspect and TAM

Clause Relations

  • Sequence of TAM in कि clausesC1 — Choose tense, aspect, and mood inside Hindi कि clauses from their own time relations rather than by automatic backshift.
  • Reported speech without backshiftC1 — Report Hindi statements faithfully without importing English automatic tense backshift, while adjusting viewpoint and deixis when meaning requires it.

Conditionals

  • Conditionals with तोB2 — Use तो to mark the consequence of Hindi conditions while controlling clause order, scope, aspect, and discourse emphasis.
  • Open future conditionsB2 — Choose subjunctive, future, or perfective predicates in Hindi conditions whose future outcome remains genuinely open.
  • Remote and counterfactual conditionsB2 — Express unlikely, imagined, and contrary-to-fact conditions by coordinating Hindi aspect and mood across the two clauses.
  • Past unfulfilled conditionsB2 — Build Hindi conditions about missed past possibilities with perfective aspect, होता, and ordinary ergative agreement.

Discourse

Foundations

Future and Modal

Habitual

  • Habitual aspect as imperfective viewpointA2 — Use the Hindi habitual to present routines, dispositions, generic truths, and repeated past events without asserting a completed endpoint.
  • Habitual for routines and dispositionsA2 — Use Hindi habitual aspect for repeated routines, characteristic behavior, skills, and tendencies without claiming that an event is happening now.
  • Habitual for generic truthsA2 — Use Hindi habitual aspect for natural regularities, kind-level properties, institutional norms, and qualified generalizations.
  • Past habitual and former statesA2 — Distinguish repeated past routines, characteristic past behavior, and former states expressed with Hindi habitual forms and past auxiliaries.
  • Habitual with time adverbialsA2 — Combine Hindi habitual aspect with frequency, schedule, duration, and trigger expressions while keeping their scope and time frame clear.

Mood

  • Subjunctive as irrealisB2 — Understand how Hindi subjunctive forms present possibilities, wishes, purposes, and alternatives without asserting them as facts.
  • Counterfactual होता constructionsB2 — Use होता-based predicates to contrast unreal states, remote possibilities, and completed past alternatives with factual Hindi clauses.

Perfective

  • Perfective aspect and bounded eventsB1 — Use Hindi perfective aspect to present an event as a bounded whole while separating viewpoint, completion, tense, and agreement.
  • Perfective with telic and atelic predicatesB1 — See how Hindi perfective aspect interacts with inherent endpoints, measured activities, objects, and completive vector verbs.
  • Perfective and result relevanceB1 — Connect a bounded Hindi event to its present result without confusing perfective viewpoint, completion vectors, and the present auxiliary.
  • Simple perfective versus present perfectB1 — Choose between the bare Hindi perfective and perfective plus present है or हैं according to time frame and current relevance.
  • Past perfect in narrative sequenceB1 — Use Hindi perfective plus था to place a completed event before a past reference point without overmarking every earlier event.
  • Perfective agreement under ergativityB1 — Follow the Hindi perfective agreement decision path from a ने-marked agent to unmarked, को-marked, coordinated, or omitted objects.
  • Perfective without नेB1 — Recognize the intransitive, experiencer, passive, modal, and lexical environments where a Hindi perfective has no ergative ने.
  • Compound verbs and event completionB1 — Understand how Hindi vector verbs package an event as completed, consequential, forceful, or participant-oriented without merely adding past tense.

Progressive

Prospective

System

Choosing

Aspect Choices

  • Habitual versus progressiveB1 — Choose the habitual for routines and characteristic patterns and the progressive for an event, temporary interval, or change viewed from within.
  • Perfective versus present perfectB1 — Choose a bare perfective for a closed past report and perfective plus है/हैं when a completed event is presented as relevant now.
  • Simple verb versus compound verbB2 — Choose a simple verb for a neutral event and a vector compound when the endpoint, affected participant, or speaker stance is foregrounded.

Case Decisions

Clause Choices

Copular Choices

  • होना versus रहनाA2 — Choose होना for existence, identity, or a state and रहना for residence, staying, or persistence through time.

Lexical Choices

Modality

Negation Choices

  • नहीं versus न versus मतB2 — Choose नहीं for factual finite negation, न for subordinate, non-finite, paired, and formal negative environments, and मत for direct prohibitions.

Possession

Postposition Decisions

  • में versus परA2 — Choose में for containment or participation and पर for support, a reference point, or an occasion while learning conventional place expressions.
  • से versus के द्वारा for agentsA2 — Choose between से and के द्वारा by distinguishing affected or induced agency from formal passive attribution.

Register Choices

Social Choices

  • तू versus तुम versus आपB2 — Choose among intimate तू, familiar तुम, and respectful आप by relationship and setting, then keep pronouns and agreement at the same social level.

Vector Choices

Common Mistakes

Agreement

  • Ignoring noun genderA2 — Repair gender mismatches by storing each noun with an agreeing partner and checking every adjective, possessive, participle, and eligible verb.
  • Making indeclinable adjectives agreeA2 — Stop inventing gender and number endings for adjectives such as सुंदर, साफ़, भारी, and तैयार while preserving agreement elsewhere.
  • Forcing subject agreement after नेB1 — Stop making perfective verbs agree with ने-marked subjects and locate the eligible object—or the default form—instead.

Aspect

Case

Ergativity

Honorificity

Object Marking

Possession

Postpositions

Questions

Reflexives

Register

Script and Sound

Verbs

  • Dropping required auxiliariesB2 — Restore हूँ, हो, है, हैं and past copulas where Hindi participles and nonverbal predicates need finite tense and person marking.

Word Order

  • Using SVO order as the defaultB1 — Repair English-style subject-verb-object clauses by rebuilding the neutral Hindi clause around a final predicate while preserving meaningful marked orders.

Compound and Complex Predicates

Complex Predicates

Conjunct Verbs

  • Noun plus करना predicatesB2 — Build Hindi conjunct predicates in which a noun supplies the event and करना carries tense, aspect, agreement, and agentive structure.
  • Noun plus होना predicatesB2 — Use noun plus होना to present states, experiences, and events as obtaining or occurring without profiling an external agent.
  • Adjective plus होना and करनाB2 — Contrast adjective plus होना for states and changes with adjective plus करना for causing an entity to reach that state.
  • Perso-Arabic noun predicatesB2 — Use inherited Perso-Arabic event nouns with their conventional Hindi light verbs, complement frames, agreement, and register values.
  • English loan plus करना predicatesB2 — Integrate established English loan bases into Hindi predicates with करना, Hindi word order, aspect, agreement, and register-sensitive alternatives.
  • Agreement in noun-verb predicatesB2 — Track Hindi agreement through conjunct predicates, from subject agreement in the imperfective to event-noun agreement in transitive perfectives.

Vector Verbs

Conjunctions

Cause and Result

Comparison

Concession

Conditionals

Conditions

Contrast

Coordinators

  • और coordinationA1 — Join words, phrases, predicates, and clauses with neutral Hindi और while keeping case, agreement, and punctuation clear.
  • या and अथवा alternativesA2 — Present choices with everyday या, paired या तो…या, and formal अथवा while keeping scope and punctuation clear.
  • लेकिन मगर परंतु contrastA2 — Choose conversational लेकिन or मगर and formal परंतु to connect clauses whose second statement reverses an expectation created by the first.

Paired Conjunctions

Purpose

  • ताकि purposeB1 — Build purpose clauses with ताकि, choosing the appropriate subjunctive, subject reference, clause order, negation, and conversational alternative.

Culture and Countries

Beyond India

Institutions

  • Schools offices and administrative HindiB2 — Read and use Hindi across classrooms, offices, forms, and service counters by tracking address, passive instructions, vocabulary level, and multilingual practice.

Language Ecology

Media

Social Language

Determiners and Quantifiers

Articles and Definiteness

  • No articles in HindiA1 — Interpret bare Hindi noun phrases as definite, indefinite, or generic through context, demonstratives, specificity, and information structure.
  • एक as numeral and indefinite markerA1 — Distinguish exact numeral एक from its discourse-introducing and ‘a certain’ uses without treating it as a mandatory article.

Degree and Quantity

Demonstratives

  • यह and वह as determinersA1 — Use singular यह and वह before nouns for near and far reference, and change them to इस and उस before postpositions.
  • ये and वे with plural nounsA1 — Use direct plural ये and वे with near and far noun phrases, including plural agreement, number words, and oblique इन and उन.

Distributives

Existential Quantifiers

  • कुछ some and anyA2 — Use invariant कुछ with mass and plural nouns, as a pronoun, and in polarity-sensitive ‘anything’ readings.
  • कोई someone anyone and someA2 — Use कोई for unspecified people or singular members, with oblique किसी and polarity-sensitive anyone readings.
  • कई severalA2 — Use invariant कई for an indefinite plural count, distinguishing it from कुछ, बहुत, and exact numerals.

Free Choice

Scope

Set Quantifiers

Syntax

Universal Quantifiers

  • हर each and everyA2 — Use indeclinable हर with singular count nouns for distributive each/every meanings, including case, agreement, intervals, and negation scope.
  • प्रत्येक in formal HindiA2 — Use formal प्रत्येक with singular nouns for administrative, academic, and carefully written each/every statements.
  • सब and सभी allA2 — Choose conversational सब or explicit सभी for plural all/everyone, and track case, agreement, mass readings, numbers, and negation scope.
  • पूरा and सारा whole and allA2 — Distinguish पूरा for an intact bounded whole from सारा for exhaustive totality, with correct agreement and scope.

Expressions and Collocations

Body Idioms

Core Predicates

Daily Life

  • Time and scheduling expressionsA2 — Arrange appointments and deadlines with Hindi collocations for availability, fixed times, duration, punctuality, delay, and rescheduling.
  • Weather and temperature expressionsA2 — Describe weather with Hindi noun–verb collocations for rain, wind, sun, clouds, seasonal heat and cold, forecasts, and felt temperature.
  • Health pain and bodily sensationsA2 — Describe illness, pain, injury, and bodily sensations with Hindi experiencer, body-part, and symptom predicate frames.
  • Hunger thirst sleep and hurryA2 — Express hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and haste through the Hindi experiencer frames they naturally select.
  • Travel directions and transportA2 — Ask for routes and combine destinations, vehicles, boarding, and arrival with their natural Hindi case frames.

Experiencer Expressions

Modern Life

Proverbs

Social Expressions

  • Greetings farewells and well-wishesA1 — Use Hindi social formulas with their fixed wording, honorific agreement, recipient marking, and occasion-specific complements.
  • Introductions names and originsA1 — Introduce yourself and others with the Hindi frames for names, roles, hometowns, residence, and respectful social presentation.

Transactions

  • Shopping prices and bargainingB1 — Ask prices, request goods, negotiate appropriately, and describe what purchases cost through natural Hindi frames.

Negation

Advanced Negation

Coordination

  • न तो न ही paired negationB1 — Coordinate two excluded alternatives with न तो...न ही, control the scope of the pair, and distinguish it from ordinary नहीं and prohibitive मत.

Core Negation

Negative Forms

Negative Indefinites

Non-Finite Negation

Pragmatic Negation

  • Expletive and echoed negationB2 — Interpret fear clauses, until-boundaries, corrective echoes, and repeated नहीं without mechanically assigning every negative form a separate logical negation.

Prohibition

  • मत in negative imperativesA2 — Form direct negative commands with मत plus an imperative or infinitive form, and distinguish them from factual नहीं and formal prohibitive न.

Questions

  • Negative questions and expectationB2 — Use negative questions to check expectations, express surprise, or challenge an assumption while keeping scope and answers unambiguous.

Scope

Nouns and Case

Agreement

Case Forms

  • Direct singular and plural formsA2 — Recognize Hindi's default noun forms and build direct plurals across the major masculine and feminine declension classes.
  • Oblique singular formationA2 — Form the singular case used before Hindi postpositions and recognize when that case is overt or hidden on the noun.
  • Oblique plural formationA2 — Build the plural noun forms required before postpositions across the major Hindi declension classes.
  • The oblique before simple postpositionsA2 — Apply oblique case consistently to complete noun phrases before simple Hindi postpositions such as को, ने, से, में, पर, and तक.
  • The oblique in compound postpositional phrasesA2 — Build oblique noun phrases before compound Hindi postpositions such as के साथ, के लिए, के पास, and के बारे में.
  • Vocative singular and pluralA2 — Form Hindi vocatives for one or several addressees and distinguish direct address from direct and oblique noun phrases.

Declension

  • Masculine class I nouns in -āA2 — Learn the productive -ā/-e/-oṃ declension of Hindi masculine nouns across direct, oblique, and vocative forms.
  • Masculine class II invariant nounsA2 — Decline masculine nouns whose singular and direct plural stay unchanged, including consonant-final nouns, loans, and vowel-final exceptions.
  • Feminine class I nouns in -īA2 — Form the direct plural, oblique plural, vocative, and agreement patterns of productive feminine nouns ending in -ī.
  • Feminine consonant-final nounsA2 — Decline feminine consonant-final nouns with direct plural -eṃ and oblique plural -oṃ while maintaining feminine agreement.
  • Feminine nouns in -iyā and -āA2 — Distinguish the two feminine vowel-final declensions: lexical -iyā nouns such as चिड़िया and -ā nouns such as भाषा and समस्या.
  • Irregular kinship nounsA2 — Master the mixed declensions of पिता, माँ, भाई, बहन, and other kin terms, including honorific agreement and vocative use.

Gender

Names

  • Proper names with case markersB1 — Attach Hindi postpositions to personal and place names while handling zero case forms, inflecting nicknames, possession, and respectful जी.

Number

Reduplication

  • Reduplicated nouns and distributive meaningB2 — Use full noun reduplication to express each member, repeated units, or exhaustive coverage while preserving Hindi number, case, and agreement.
  • Echo-word noun phrasesC1 — Form informal Hindi echo pairs such as चाय-वाय to mean ‘X and related things’ while handling number, oblique case, agreement, and tone accurately.

Reference

  • Bare nouns and generic referenceB2 — Interpret articleless Hindi nouns as kinds, typical members, masses, or discourse-linked individuals using number, aspect, and context.
  • Specificity without articlesB2 — Express definite, specific-indefinite, and nonspecific reference in Hindi through discourse, determiners, modifiers, and differential object marking.

Syntax

  • Nouns used adjectivallyB2 — Build Hindi noun–noun modifiers such as स्कूल बस and महिला डॉक्टर while inflecting only the head noun for gender, number, and case.
  • Nominal ellipsis and recoverable head nounsC1 — Omit a contextually recoverable Hindi noun while preserving its gender, number, case, and agreement on the words that remain.

Numbers and Measurement

Cardinals

  • Numbers zero to tenA1 — Learn the Hindi cardinals from zero to ten, how they combine with nouns, and how they appear in prices, times, dates, and measurements.
  • Numbers eleven to twentyA1 — Master the lexical Hindi cardinals from eleven to twenty and use them accurately in schedules, transactions, dates, and counted noun phrases.
  • Numbers twenty-one to one hundredA1 — Learn the Hindi cardinals from twenty-one to one hundred as a lexical system, with patterns for recognition and accurate use in everyday noun phrases.

Dates

  • Dates years and centuriesB1 — Read and write Hindi calendar dates, years, decades, and centuries with the right cardinals, postpositions, and agreement.

Fractions

  • Fractions डेढ़ ढाई and सवाA2 — Use Hindi’s everyday fraction words डेढ़, ढाई, सवा, पौने, साढ़े, and आधा accurately with quantities, time, money, and large numbers.

Large Numbers

  • Hundreds thousands lakh and croreA2 — Build and interpret large Hindi cardinals with सौ, हज़ार, लाख, and करोड़, including exact and approximate number phrases.
  • Indian digit grouping and commasA2 — Read and write Indian-grouped numerals by separating the final three digits and then grouping every remaining pair for thousands, lakhs, and crores.

Ordinals

  • Ordinal numbersA2 — Form and use Hindi ordinals from पहला through लाखवाँ, with agreement, oblique case, dates, rankings, and formal alternatives.

Practical Measurement

Time

  • Clock time and durationB1 — Tell clock time, read schedules, and distinguish Hindi expressions for when an event occurs from how long it lasts.

Participles and Non-Finite Forms

Advanced Non-Finite Syntax

  • Absolute and detached participial phrasesC1 — Build and interpret detached Hindi event frames with their own subject, distinguishing them from shared-subject converbs and agreeing participial modifiers.
  • Non-finite clauses in formal proseC1 — Read and write dense Hindi prose by choosing among nominalized events, participial modifiers, converbs, and detached frames while keeping control and agreement explicit.
  • Ambiguous control and dangling modifiersC2 — Diagnose who performs a Hindi non-finite event and repair dangling or ambiguous modifiers with local subjects, nominalizations, or finite clauses.

Converbs

  • Conjunctive participle in -karB1 — Use invariant Hindi -कर converbs to connect a shared-subject event with a following finite event as sequence, means, cause, or manner.
  • करके as an expanded converbB2 — Use करके to link an event expressed with करना—including noun, adjective, and loan predicates—to a following shared-subject event.
  • -kar versus -keB2 — Distinguish Standard Hindi -कर converbs from common spoken -के variants, standard करके, genitive के, and bare lexical कर-.
  • Converb event sequencingB2 — Interpret and build Hindi converb chains by tracking event order, semantic relations, subject continuity, negation, and the final predicate's scope.
  • Same-subject constraint with converbsB2 — Track the understood subject through Hindi -कर and -करके chains and repair changes of actor with finite or nominalized clauses.
  • Negative converbs बिना and बग़ैरB2 — Express 'without doing' through Hindi perfective-oblique forms with बिना or बग़ैर while keeping subject control and scope clear.
  • ते हुए simultaneous actionB2 — Use invariant adverbial -ते हुए for simultaneous action while distinguishing it from grammatical agreeing depictives in -ता हुआ.
  • ते ही immediate successionB2 — Use Hindi verb stem + ते ही to mark the contextually immediate trigger for a following event.
  • करते-करते gradual or repeated processC1 — Use reduplicated Hindi -ते-ते forms for sustained, repeated, or gradually unfolding activity and its emerging result.

Infinitives

  • The infinitive as verbal nounA2 — Use the Hindi -ना form to name an action while preserving its objects, modifiers, and understood or expressed subject.
  • Oblique infinitive -neA2 — Recognize and form the Hindi oblique infinitive in -ने before postpositions and in purpose, onset, and related non-finite constructions.
  • Infinitive with postpositionsA2 — Combine the oblique Hindi infinitive with postpositions to express purpose, time, cause, means, condition, duration, and alternatives.
  • Infinitive subjects and agreementA2 — Identify who performs a Hindi infinitive and distinguish default -ना from object-controlled infinitive agreement in necessity constructions.
  • Infinitive as instruction or labelB1 — Use the Hindi -ना infinitive for impersonal labels, checklist steps, recipe notes, and familiar future-oriented reminders.

Participles

  • Habitual participles attributivelyB1 — Use -ता, -ती, and -ते participles before nouns to classify participants or depict actions viewed from within.
  • Perfective participles attributivelyB1 — Use Hindi perfective participles before nouns to identify completed events, attained states, and their affected participants.
  • Progressive participial phrasesB1 — Build Hindi progressive modifiers with रहा, रही, and रहे to locate a noun inside an unfolding event.
  • Participles with हुआB1 — Use हुआ to expand imperfective and perfective participles, with agreement in noun modifiers and controlled -ते हुए adverbials.
  • Agreement inside participial modifiersB1 — Track the head noun through Hindi habitual, perfective, progressive, and हुआ participial modifiers while separating agreeing depictives from invariant adverbials.

Postpositions

Abstract Relations

Compound Postpositions

  • के लिए purpose and beneficiaryA2 — Use के लिए for intended beneficiaries, purposes, suitability, viewpoints, and bounded temporary periods, with correct noun and pronoun forms.
  • के साथ accompanimentA2 — Use के साथ for accompaniment, association, and parallel development while keeping its complement oblique and its pronoun forms conventional.
  • के पास possession and proximityA2 — Use के पास for physical nearness and possessive existence, distinguishing what someone has from what belongs to them.
  • के बारे में topicB1 — Use के बारे में to establish what speech, thought, knowledge, or inquiry is about, with oblique nouns and conventional pronoun forms.

Core Postpositions

  • का के की possession and agreementA1 — Choose का, के, or की by the gender, number, and case of the possessed expression while putting noun possessors in the oblique form.
  • को as recipient and goal markerA1 — Use को for recipients, animate or institutional endpoints, selected experiencers, and time points while forming its oblique noun and pronoun complements.
  • में for containment and domainsA1 — Use में for physical interiors, membership, time spans, languages, and abstract domains with correct oblique complements and pronoun forms.
  • पर for surfaces locations and occasionsA2 — Use पर for surfaces, location points, activity sites, media, and occasions while distinguishing it from में and predicate-selected uses.
  • से as source and separationA2 — Use से for origins, departure points, separation, and starting times with correct oblique nouns and fused pronoun forms.
  • से as instrument and meansA2 — Use से for tools, body parts, transport, communication channels, methods, and selected causes while distinguishing accompaniment and agency.
  • से as comparison standardA2 — Use से to set the standard in unequal comparisons, from ordinary adjective contrasts to pronouns, quantities, and सबसे superlatives.
  • तक for endpoints and limitsA2 — Use तक for spatial destinations, deadlines, ranges, measurable limits, and the lexicalized expression यहाँ तक कि.
  • को as differential object markerA2 — Understand how animacy, specificity, definiteness, affectedness, and verb meaning condition को on direct objects and reshape perfective agreement.
  • ने as perfective ergative markerA2 — Learn when perfective transitive clauses mark their agent with ने, how split ergativity differs from past tense, and which phrase controls agreement.

Foundations

  • Postpositions and oblique complementsA1 — Build Hindi relational phrases by placing a postposition after an oblique noun or special pronoun form instead of translating English prepositions word for word.

Spatial Relations

  • की ओर directionB1 — Use की ओर for physical and abstract movement toward a reference point, with possessive-form pronouns and contrasts with की तरफ़ and direct objects.
  • की तरफ़ direction and orientationB1 — Use की तरफ़ for everyday direction, facing, alignment, and the extended source expression की तरफ़ से, with correct oblique and pronoun forms.
  • के सामने opposite and in frontB1 — Use के सामने for positions in front of or opposite a landmark, presence before a person, and abstract confrontation, while distinguishing आगे and सामना करना.
  • के पीछे behind and motiveB1 — Use के पीछे for physical position, following and pursuit, and the underlying motive or force behind an event, with correct oblique complements.
  • के अंदर and के बाहर: interior and exterior locationB1 — Use के अंदर and के बाहर to locate something relative to a named boundary, while distinguishing bare अंदर/बाहर and neutral containment with में.
  • के ऊपर ऊपर and पर comparedB2 — Distinguish relational के ऊपर, deictic ऊपर, and surface or target marker पर in physical, hierarchical, and lexical uses.
  • के नीचे and तलेB2 — Contrast neutral के नीचे for physical and hierarchical relations with literary or formulaic तले in spatial, pressure, and idiomatic expressions.
  • के बीच and में amongB2 — Distinguish के बीच for an intervening space or relationship from में for membership and location within a group or domain.

Time Relations

  • के बाद sequenceB1 — Use के बाद to place an event, time, person, or item after an oblique reference point, including event clauses built with oblique infinitives.
  • से पहले precedenceB1 — Use से पहले for temporal and ordered precedence, including oblique nouns, fused pronouns, and event complements in -ने से पहले.
  • के दौरान durationB1 — Use के दौरान to locate an event within an extended period, with correct oblique complements and contrasts with में, तक, भर, and subordinate clauses.

Pragmatics

Address

Advanced Pragmatics

Advice

  • Giving advice without sounding commandingB1 — Offer Hindi advice with चाहिए, क्यों न, चाहें तो, conditionals, and perspective markers while matching authority, relationship, and urgency.

Apologies

Compliments

  • Compliments and modest responsesB2 — Give and receive Hindi compliments with natural agreement, calibrated warmth, modesty, and attention to relationship and setting.

Conversation

  • Turn-taking hesitation and repairC1 — Manage Hindi conversation through turn-entry signals, holding devices, listener responses, self-repair, and respectful clarification.

Hospitality

  • Offering and accepting hospitalityB1 — Use Hindi offer questions, benefactive imperatives, and gracious acceptance formulae for food, drink, seating, and help across formal and familiar settings.

Particles

Refusals

  • Refusing and declining politelyB1 — Decline Hindi invitations, offers, and requests with clear scope, respectful agreement, reasons, appreciation, and realistic alternatives.

Requests

Social Formulae

Stance

  • Agreement disagreement and softeningB2 — Agree, disagree, and qualify a position in Hindi through stance phrases, concession, particles, honorific grammar, and calibrated directness.

Thanks

  • Thanking and responding to thanksB2 — Express gratitude and answer it naturally in Hindi by matching formulas, explanations, and honorific grammar to the relationship and favor.

Pronouns and Honorificity

Demonstratives

Discourse

Honorificity

  • Choosing तू तुम or आपA1 — Choose among intimate तू, familiar तुम, and respectful or plural आप while matching agreement, postpositional forms, and relationship-sensitive social meaning.
  • Respectful third-person referenceB2 — Refer respectfully to one third person with plural ये or वे, plural oblique forms, and honorific agreement while preserving deixis and gender.
  • Plural agreement with singular आपB2 — Track plural-honorific agreement with one आप across copulas, habituals, progressives, futures, perfectives, predicates, and imperatives.
  • Honorific plural for names and kin termsB2 — Use plural-honorific agreement with one respected person named by a proper name, title, जी-expression, or kin term, and continue with matching pronouns.
  • Social shifts and deliberate pronoun switchingC2 — Understand how shifts among तू, तुम, आप and third-person forms reframe relationships and require matching grammatical agreement.

Indefinites

Interrogatives

  • Interrogative कौन and क्याB1 — Use कौन for people and क्या for things, content, identity, and yes–no question marking, with appropriate agreement and postpositional forms.
  • Oblique किस and किनB1 — Use singular/general किस and selected-plural किन before postpositions, in possessives, and in conventional किसे/किन्हें and किसने/किन्होंने forms.

Oblique Forms

  • Oblique stems मुझ तुझ and हमA2 — Build first-person and intimate second-person postpositional forms from मुझ, तुझ, and हम while distinguishing को, ने, possessive, and reflexive forms.
  • तुम्ह and आप oblique formsA2 — Build familiar तुम and respectful आप forms before simple and compound postpositions, distinguishing productive stems from तुम्हें, तुम्हारा, आपको, and आपका.
  • इस उस इन उन oblique demonstrativesA2 — Map direct यह वह ये वे to singular इस उस and plural इन उन before postpositions, including honorific third-person reference.

Personal Pronouns

  • Personal pronouns overviewA1 — Map Hindi personal pronouns across person, number, case, agreement, and the three socially meaningful levels of second-person address.
  • मैं and हम direct formsA1 — Use first-person मैं and हम with the right agreement, case forms, number readings, and reflexive expressions.

Possessives

Postpositional Forms

  • Pronouns with कोA2 — Use the conventional को-series मुझे, तुझे, तुम्हें, आपको, इसे, उसे, इन्हें, and उन्हें for objects, recipients, and experiencers.
  • Pronouns with से and मेंA2 — Form मुझसे, उससे, हममें, उनमें and related fused forms while preserving person, number, deixis, and honorific reference.

Reciprocals

  • Reciprocal एक-दूसरेB1 — Use एक-दूसरे for mutual actions and relations, choosing the required postposition and keeping reciprocal meaning distinct from reflexive अपना or खुद.

Reflexives

Second Person

  • तू intimate singular youA1 — Use singular तू with its intimate agreement, oblique forms, commands, and relationship-dependent social meanings.
  • तुम familiar youA1 — Use familiar तुम for one or more addressees with its characteristic agreement, case forms, commands, and social range.
  • आप respectful youA1 — Use आप for respectful singular and ordinary plural address, with plural agreement, postpositional forms, and socially appropriate contrasts with तुम.

Pronunciation

Connected Speech

Consonants

  • Dental versus retroflex stopsA1 — Build Hindi's two contrasting t/d series by learning where the tongue touches, how the contrast changes words, and where native variation is normal.
  • Unaspirated versus aspirated stopsA2 — Learn why Hindi treats the presence or absence of a release puff as part of a consonant's identity, across both voiceless and voiced stops.
  • Voiceless versus voiced stop seriesA2 — Distinguish Hindi stops by vocal-fold vibration while keeping place and aspiration constant, including contrasts inside nasal-plus-stop sequences.
  • Affricates च छ ज झA2 — Produce Hindi's four palatal affricates as a coordinated system of voicing and aspiration rather than as English spelling combinations.
  • Flaps र ड़ ढ़A2 — Distinguish Hindi's alveolar r from the retroflex flaps ṛ and ṛh, including the crucial पढ़ना–पड़ना contrast.
  • व between English v and wA2 — Place Hindi व in its own labiodental category instead of forcing it into the English v–w split.
  • श ष स in standard and colloquial speechA2 — Separate the robust ś–s contrast while understanding why written ṣ often merges with ś in contemporary Hindi speech.
  • ख़ ग़ क़ फ़ ज़ in careful and common speechA2 — Recognize and produce Hindi's five major nukta loan consonants while understanding their common word-by-word mergers with native sounds.
  • The status of ङ and ञA2 — Learn why the velar and palatal nasal sounds are common in Hindi even though the independent letters ङ and ञ are rare.

Intonation

Prosody

Schwa Deletion

  • Schwa deletion at word endA2 — Learn why a final consonant's written inherent a is normally silent in modern Hindi and how that changes rhythm and consonant clusters.
  • Internal schwa deletionA2 — Learn how Hindi suppresses some inherent vowels inside words, why syllable structure matters, and why spelling alone cannot predict every case.
  • Morphology and blocked schwa deletionB1 — Understand how stems, suffixes, and compound boundaries can preserve or redirect Hindi schwa deletion.
  • Schwa deletion in compounds and namesB1 — Learn how lexicalization, compound boundaries, and individual naming conventions shape schwa deletion in Hindi words and proper names.

Vowels

Questions

Embedding

  • Indirect questions and embedded word orderC1 — Embed wh- and yes-no questions under verbs such as पूछना, जानना, and पता होना while preserving Hindi clause structure and case marking.

Polar Questions

Question Types

  • Alternative questionsB1 — Ask someone to choose between explicit alternatives with या, distinguish choice questions from polar questions, and place interrogative phrases naturally.
  • Echo and clarification questionsB2 — Repeat, replace, or quote uncertain material to check surprising information and repair misunderstandings in Hindi conversation.
  • Tag questions with है न and नाB2 — Use है न, था न, and conversational ना to seek agreement, soften requests, and express an expected answer without copying English tags.

Wh Questions

Regional and Social Variation

Diaspora

  • Diaspora Hindi and heritage-speaker patternsC2 — Analyze Hindi across diaspora and heritage-speaker settings without reducing multilingual repertoires, contact varieties, or incomplete access to a single deficient model.

Foundations

  • What Modern Standard Hindi includesB1 — Understand Modern Standard Hindi as a shared grammatical range with regional, social, and register variation rather than one uniform voice.

Hindi-Urdu Continuum

Media Variation

  • Bollywood dialogue versus everyday speechC1 — Distinguish broadly usable conversational Hindi from the heightened registers, scripted compression, and multilingual styling of Hindi-film dialogue.
  • Broadcast pronunciation and formal normsC2 — Understand how Hindi news and public-service broadcasting shape pronunciation, sentence design, vocabulary, and formal stance without mistaking them for everyday speech.

Regional Hindi

Social Variation

Register and Style

Contact Style

  • English code-switching and HinglishC1 — Distinguish established English loans from live code-switching and integrate them through Hindi word order, postpositions, agreement, and light verbs.

Contemporary Style

Literary Style

  • Literary prose and poetic syntaxC1 — Read literary Hindi as a controlled reshaping of ordinary syntax through viewpoint, ellipsis, parallelism, marked order, and layered vocabulary.

Media

  • Journalistic news styleB2 — Understand Hindi news style through headline compression, lead structure, attribution, evidential distance, and source-shaped vocabulary.
  • Broadcast and public-address HindiB2 — Design Hindi for the ear with explicit address, short information units, careful repetition, and audience-appropriate public formulas.

Spoken Registers

  • Everyday colloquial Standard HindiA2 — Build natural everyday Hindi through spoken clause design, familiar particles, ordinary vocabulary mixing, and relationship-appropriate address.
  • Neutral educated spoken HindiB1 — Use clear public-facing spoken Hindi with explicit organization, calibrated vocabulary, consistent address, and natural cross-domain mixing.

Vocabulary Strata

  • Sanskritized vocabulary and compoundsC1 — Use Sanskritic vocabulary and compact compounds where modern Hindi genres license them, while preserving Hindi agreement, case, and readable sentence architecture.
  • Perso-Arabic and Urdu-associated vocabularyC1 — Use shared and Urdu-associated vocabulary by collocation, domain, audience, and literary stance rather than treating origin as a fixed register label.

Written Registers

  • Formal written HindiB1 — Shape clear formal Hindi by coordinating audience, sentence architecture, address, and vocabulary instead of merely choosing longer words.
  • Administrative and bureaucratic HindiB1 — Read and write administrative Hindi by recognizing institutional passives, document references, role labels, and procedural noun phrases.
  • Academic expositionB2 — Build Hindi academic arguments with explicit definitions, evidence-to-claim links, calibrated stance, and coherent information structure.

Relative-Correlative Constructions

Case

Core System

Correlative Series

Free Relatives

Variants

Sentences and Clauses

Adverbial Clauses

  • Purpose clauses with ताकिB1 — Use ताकि to introduce a finite intended outcome, especially when the purpose clause has its own subject or modal force.
  • Cause clauses with क्योंकिB1 — Use क्योंकि to give a finite reason for a statement, and distinguish causal clauses from result, purpose, and nominal cause phrases.
  • Result clauses with इसलिएB1 — Use इसलिए to connect an established cause to its consequence, while distinguishing result from reason, purpose, and true subordination.
  • Concessive clauses with हालाँकिB1 — Use हालाँकि to frame a fact that raises an expectation which the main clause overrides, often resumed by फिर भी.
  • Temporal जब तब clausesB1 — Link a temporal जब clause to its main event with तब, optional तो, or a contextually recoverable correlate.
  • Before and after clausesB1 — Order Hindi events with non-finite से पहले and के बाद phrases or finite इससे पहले कि and जब … उसके बाद clauses.
  • Until clauses with जब तकB1 — Set an endpoint or continuing interval with जब तक … तब तक, including the special negative pattern used for ‘until X happens.’

Clause Chaining

  • Clause chaining with converbsB2 — Link shared-controller events with invariant -कर and -करके forms while letting the final predicate carry the chain's tense, mood, agreement, and main assertion.

Comparative Clauses

Complement Clauses

  • कि complement clausesA2 — Use कि to place a complete finite proposition after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, and wanting while keeping both clause structures clear.
  • Whether clauses with कि नहींA2 — Form embedded yes-or-no alternatives with कि…या नहीं, and distinguish them from direct questions with क्या or colloquial कि नहीं.

Conditionals

  • Conditional अगर तो clausesB1 — Build open, predictive, and general conditions with अगर … तो, and choose between finite clauses and compact -ने पर phrases.
  • Counterfactual conditional clausesB2 — Express unreal present situations and unrealized past alternatives with अगर … होता/करता and corresponding hypothetical result forms.

Coordination

  • Coordinated clausesA2 — Join independent Hindi clauses with और or formal तथा while tracking shared subjects, separate agreement, event order, and punctuation.
  • Adversative clausesA2 — Connect contrasting Hindi clauses with लेकिन, मगर, पर, or formal किंतु and परंतु while keeping concession, tense, and subject reference clear.
  • Alternative and disjunctive clausesA2 — Present choices and incompatible possibilities with या, paired या तो … या …, formal अथवा, and negative alternatives.

Discourse

  • Parenthetical and comment clausesC1 — Insert speaker stance, source reminders, qualifications, and repairs as prosodically and punctuationally separate comments without disturbing the host clause.

Embedding

  • Embedded finite versus infinitive clausesC1 — Choose between an independently tensed कि clause and a controlled or nominalized infinitive by tracking subject reference, proposition type, agreement, and time.

Reported Speech

  • Reported statementsA2 — Turn direct Hindi statements into indirect reports with कि while adjusting speaker reference, deixis, punctuation, and time only when meaning requires it.
  • Reported questionsA2 — Report Hindi wh- and yes-or-no questions with पूछना and कि while preserving embedded word order, clear participant reference, and meaningful tense choices.
  • Reported commands and requestsA2 — Report instructions and requests with a subjunctive कि clause or an oblique infinitive while keeping the addressee, politeness, negation, and desired outcome clear.

Simple Sentences

  • Simple affirmative sentencesA1 — Build complete positive Hindi statements around one finite predicate and distinguish simple expansion from coordination or subordination.
  • Equational and nominal sentencesA1 — Build Hindi clauses that identify, classify, or describe a subject with a nominal predicate and the appropriate form of होना.
  • Existential sentencesA1 — Express that someone or something exists, is available, or is present with a location or domain followed by an agreeing form of होना.

Written Syntax

  • Headlines and copula omissionC1 — Recognize how Hindi headlines omit predictable present copulas while preserving tense, clause boundaries, and distinctions from ordinary prose.
  • Punctuation across complex sentencesC2 — Use commas, semicolons, dashes, colons, and sentence boundaries to clarify Hindi clause structure without asking punctuation to replace grammar.

Syntax

Agreement

  • Agreement hierarchy overviewA2 — Choose the Hindi predicate's agreement controller from case marking and clause structure rather than word order or meaning.
  • Agreement with unmarked subjectsA2 — Form Hindi agreement with ordinary unmarked subjects across gender, number, aspect, honorificity, and coordination.
  • Agreement with ergative subjectsA2 — Track Hindi agreement when a perfective transitive subject bears ने, distinguishing syntactic subjecthood from agreement control.
  • Agreement with को-marked objectsA2 — Understand why a Hindi object marked with को cannot control agreement and how the remaining clause structure selects subject agreement or default form.
  • Default masculine singular agreementA2 — Recognize masculine singular as Hindi’s fallback agreement when case marking or clause type leaves the predicate without an eligible controller.
  • Long-distance agreement limitsA2 — See when Hindi agreement can extend through a tightly integrated infinitival predicate and why finite clauses, case marking, and lexical structure block it.

Analysis

Clause Structure

Complementation

  • Complement clauses with किB2 — Use कि to embed a finite proposition as the content of speech, thought, knowledge, perception, evaluation, or desire while preserving local syntax.
  • Infinitival complement clausesB2 — Choose direct, oblique, controlled, and agreeing Hindi infinitival complements while keeping their controller distinct from the matrix subject and finite clauses.
  • Control with चाहना सकना and कहनाB2 — Track the understood subject of Hindi non-finite complements with चाहना, सकना, and कहना, and know when a finite कि clause is required.
  • Raising-like लगना constructionsC1 — Analyze Hindi लगना ‘seem’ as a raising-like predicate, with a dative experiencer, an agreeing stimulus, and a distinct finite कि-clause alternative.

Coordination

  • Coordination and shared argumentsB2 — Coordinate Hindi noun phrases and predicates while tracking shared subjects, objects, postpositions, agreement, and clause boundaries.

Ellipsis

  • Gapping and ellipsisC1 — Recover omitted Hindi subjects, objects, and predicates from parallel structure while preserving case, agreement, scope, and clause boundaries.

Ergativity

Non-Canonical Subjects

  • Dative experiencer subjectsB1 — Analyze Hindi experiencer clauses with को-marked participants, local agreement, lexical case frames, and clear scope across clause boundaries.
  • Possessive and necessity predicatesB1 — Distinguish Hindi possession, need, advice, obligation, and external necessity through their case frames and agreement controllers.
  • Genitive subjects in nominalized clausesB1 — Mark the performer of a Hindi infinitival verbal noun with का/के/की and track how direct versus oblique clause form determines the visible genitive.

Object Marking

Predication

  • Nominal predicates without an overt copulaC1 — Identify the restricted Hindi contexts where a nominal predicate can omit present होना, and distinguish zero copula from fragments, headlines, and coordination ellipsis.
  • Existential and presentational clausesC1 — Distinguish Hindi clauses that assert existence, locate an entity, introduce a new referent, or present something to the listener.

Voice

Verb Reference

High-Frequency Verbs

  • होना honā: to be and happenA1 — Reference the irregular copula, existential, eventive, auxiliary, and change-of-state forms of होना across the major Hindi paradigms.
  • करना karnā: to doA1 — Reference करना across its major paradigms, including irregular किया, ergative perfectives, causatives, and productive noun-plus-करना predicates.
  • जाना jānā: to goA1 — Reference जाना as a motion verb, its suppletive perfective गया, its future and imperative forms, and its passive and vector uses.
  • आना ānā: to comeA1 — Reference आना across its irregular perfective, future and imperative forms, source and destination frames, and directional compounds.
  • देना denā: to giveA1 — Reference देना as a ditransitive verb and completion-oriented vector, including irregular दिया and respectful दीजिए.
  • लेना lenā: to takeA1 — Reference लेना as a transitive verb and actor-oriented vector, including irregular लिया, future लूँगा, and respectful लीजिए.
  • कहना kahnā: to sayA1 — Reference कहना across its speech-complement frames, perfective agreement, future and imperative forms, and causative extensions.
  • बोलना bolnā: to speakA1 — Reference बोलना across speaking, language-object, and manner frames, including perfective alignment, causatives, and sudden बोल पड़ना.
  • देखना dekhnā: to seeA1 — Reference देखना across perception and watching frames, transitive perfectives, दिखाना causatives, and completive देख लेना.
  • सुनना sunnā: to hear and listenA1 — Reference सुनना across auditory perception, attentive listening, evidential reports, object agreement, and causative सुनाना.
  • खाना khānā: to eatA2 — Reference खाना across food-object frames, transitive perfective agreement, future and imperative forms, and causative खिलाना.
  • पीना pīnā: to drinkA2 — Reference पीना across its vowel-alternating perfective and future forms, object agreement, causative पिलाना, and common collocations.
  • रहना rahnā: to stay and liveA2 — Reference रहना as residence, staying, persistence, and continuative auxiliary, including its perfective and रह जाना compounds.
  • रखना rakhnā: to keep and putA2 — Reference रखना across placement, possession, maintained states, perfective agreement, causative रखवाना, and resultative vector uses.
  • मिलना milnā: to meet and be receivedA2 — Reference मिलना across meeting, receiving, availability, reciprocal relations, dative experiencers, and causative मिलाना or मिलवाना.
  • पाना pānā: to obtain and manage toA2 — Reference lexical पाना ‘obtain’ and modal bare-stem-plus-पाना ‘manage to,’ with their different alignment and achievement meanings.
  • लगना lagnā: to seem feel attach and beginA2 — Reference लगना across seeming, bodily sensation, attachment, time and cost, and infinitive-plus-लगना onset frames.
  • चाहना cāhnā: to want and loveA2 — Reference चाहना across desire, affection, infinitival and subjunctive complements, perfective agreement, and polite future-shaped forms.
  • सकना saknā: to be ableA2 — Reference defective modal सकना across ability, feasibility, permission, perfective success, and its stem-combining paradigm.
  • पड़ना paṛnā: to fall and have toA2 — Reference पड़ना across falling, situated states, external necessity, sudden-onset compounds, and its lexical transitive counterparts.
  • बनना bannā: to become and be madeA2 — Reference बनना as an intransitive verb of becoming, formation, successful outcome, and achieved transition with बन जाना.
  • बनाना banānā: to makeA2 — Reference बनाना for making, preparing, appointing, and causing a result, with agreement, causatives, and compound-verb patterns.
  • ले जाना le jānā: to take awayA2 — Reference ले जाना as a directional compound for carrying someone or something away, with जाना-based inflection and deictic contrasts.
  • ले आना le ānā: to bringA2 — Reference ले आना as a speakerward directional compound, with आना-based inflection, argument patterns, and the contrast with ले जाना.
  • चलना calnā: to walk and functionA2 — Reference चलना across walking, movement, operation, validity, commands, causatives, and sudden departure with चल पड़ना.
  • बैठना baiṭhnā: to sitA2 — Reference बैठना for sitting, taking a seat, settling into a state, and the inadvertent-action vector use in forms such as कह बैठना.
  • उठना uṭhnā: to riseA2 — Reference उठना for rising, getting up, arising, its causative family उठाना–उठवाना, and endpoint use with उठ जाना.
  • सोना sonā: to sleepA2 — Reference सोना across sleep states, irregular perfective forms, commands such as जा सो, endpoint सो जाना, and causative सुलाना.
  • जागना jāgnā: to wake or stay awakeA2 — Reference जागना for becoming awake and remaining awake, with no-ने perfectives, जाग जाना, and the causative contrast with जगाना.
  • पढ़ना paṛhnā: to read and studyA2 — Reference पढ़ना across reading and studying, its aspirated retroflex flap, transitive perfective agreement, causatives, and पढ़ लेना.
  • लिखना likhnā: to writeA2 — Reference लिखना across writing frames, transitive perfective agreement, participles, causation, and completive लिख देना.
  • सीखना sīkhnā: to learnA2 — Reference सीखना with noun and infinitive complements, transitive perfective agreement, completion with सीख लेना, and the teaching causative.
  • सिखाना sikhānā: to teachA2 — Reference सिखाना as the causative of सीखना, with teacher–learner–content argument marking, perfective agreement, and compound behavior.
  • समझना samajhnā: to understand and considerA2 — Reference समझना across understanding, interpreting, and considering, with object complements, perfective agreement, and समझ लेना.
  • पूछना pūchnā: to askA2 — Reference पूछना with person-से and content objects, perfective agreement, questions, compound verbs, and causative पूछवाना.
  • बताना batānā: to tell and explainB1 — Reference बताना with recipient-को and noun, clause, and question-word content frames, plus agreement, compounds, and causation.
  • भेजना bhejnā: to sendB1 — Reference भेजना with theme, recipient, and goal marking, transitive perfective agreement, भिजवाना, and directional compounds.
  • लाना lānā: to bringB1 — Reference लाना as the compact speakerward motion verb historically related to ले आना, including its exceptional no-ने perfective and deictic frames.
  • खरीदना kharīdnā: to buyB1 — Reference खरीदना with seller, source, price, and object frames, transitive perfective agreement, causation, and completive खरीद लेना.
  • बेचना becnā: to sellB1 — Reference बेचना with buyer, price, and item frames, transitive perfective agreement, बेच देना, and the intransitive counterpart बिकना.
  • देना पड़ना denā paṛnā: to have to giveB1 — Reference देना पड़ना as a nested infinitive-plus-necessity predicate, with dative obligors, theme agreement, tense, and negation.
  • खोलना kholnā: to open transitiveB1 — Reference खोलना as the transitive member of the खुलना–खोलना family, with object agreement, completive compounds, and causatives.
  • खुलना khulnā: to open intransitiveB1 — Reference खुलना for spontaneous opening, result states, availability, खुल जाना, and its transitive and causative family.
  • बंद करना band karnā: to closeB1 — Reference बंद करना as an indeclinable adjective-plus-करना predicate for closing, switching off, stopping, and arranging closure.
  • शुरू करना śurū karnā: to start transitiveB1 — Reference शुरू करना as a Perso-Arabic loan predicate for starting events and activities, with aspect, agreement, and causative layering.
  • शुरू होना śurū honā: to start intransitiveB1 — Reference शुरू होना as an event-subject predicate, with होना layering, result and onset readings, and the contrast with शुरू करना.
  • रोकना roknā: to stop somethingB1 — Reference रोकना as a transitive verb of stopping, preventing, detaining, and holding back, with object marking and रोक देना.
  • रुकना ruknā: to stop oneselfB1 — Reference रुकना for stopping, pausing, remaining, and staying at a place, with no-ने perfectives and the contrast with रोकना.
  • पहनना pahannā: to put on and wearB1 — Reference पहनना across the event of putting on and the state of wearing, with transitive agreement, पहन लेना, and causative पहनाना.
  • उतारना utārnā: to take off and lowerB1 — Reference उतारना across removing, lowering, unloading, and causing descent, with multiple frames, agreement, and its उतरना history.
  • धोना dhonā: to washB1 — Reference धोना with transitive perfective agreement, reflexive body-part patterns, resultative compounds, and causatives धुलना–धुलवाना.
  • नहाना nahānā: to batheB1 — Reference नहाना as an intransitive bathing verb, with water and place frames, register alternatives, compounds, and causative नहलाना.
  • मरना marnā: to dieB1 — Reference मरना across dying, death states, cause expressions, irregular-looking contrasts with मारना, light-verb extensions, and respectful alternatives.
  • मारना mārnā: to hit and killB1 — Reference मारना across striking, killing, object marking, transitive agreement, causative relations, and productive noun collocations.
  • जीना jīnā: to liveB1 — Reference जीना for being alive and living a life, with irregular perfective जिया, manner complements, cognate objects, and idioms.
  • जन्म लेना janm lenā: to be bornB1 — Reference जन्म लेना as a noun-plus-लेना predicate for being born and coming into existence, without an English passive calque.
  • सोचना socnā: to thinkB1 — Reference सोचना with कि clauses, topics, plans, transitive perfectives, सोच लेना, and the formal contrast with विचार करना.
  • मानना mānnā: to believe accept and obeyB1 — Reference मानना across belief, acceptance, obedience, and classification, with gemination, object complements, मान लेना, and causatives.
  • जानना jānnā: to know facts or peopleB1 — Reference जानना for factual knowledge, familiarity with people, complements, perfective alignment, and contrasts with पहचानना and पता होना.
  • पहचानना pahcānnā: to recognizeB1 — Reference पहचानना for recognizing and identifying people, voices, objects, and patterns, with its nasal sequence, object marking, and compounds.
  • याद होना yād honā: to rememberA2 — Reference याद होना as a dative-experiencer predicate for information held in memory, with item-controlled agreement and related memory constructions.
  • याद करना yād karnā: to recall and memorizeA2 — Reference याद करना as an agentive predicate for deliberate recall, memorization, thinking of someone, perfective agreement, and causation.
  • पसंद होना pasand honā: to likeA2 — Reference पसंद होना as a dative-experiencer predicate in which the liked item controls agreement, with dynamic, infinitival, and preference frames.
  • ज़रूरत होना zarūrat honā: to needA2 — Reference ज़रूरत होना as a feminine noun predicate with a को-marked possessor-experiencer, genitive complements, agreement, and necessity contrasts.
  • मदद करना madad karnā: to helpA2 — Reference मदद करना with possessive and को-plus-में recipient frames, feminine light-verb agreement, causatives, compounds, and idioms.
  • इंतज़ार करना intazār karnā: to waitA2 — Reference इंतज़ार करना with its का complement, duration phrases, perfective behavior, polite imperatives, causatives, and idiomatic extensions.
  • कोशिश करना kośiś karnā: to tryB1 — Reference कोशिश करना with infinitive-plus-की and कि-clause complements, feminine perfective agreement, compounds, and limits on causation.
  • फ़ैसला करना faislā karnā: to decideB1 — Reference फ़ैसला करना across action, कि-clause, topic, institutional, perfective, causative, and result-state frames.
  • काम करना kām karnā: to work and functionA2 — Use काम करना for human work, functioning systems, effective measures, and the compounds built from this high-frequency predicate.
  • खेलना khelnā: to playA2 — Use खेलना for games and free play, with accurate object marking, perfective agreement, causatives, and contrasts with other English senses of play.

Verbs

Causatives

  • Direct causatives in -ā-B2 — Form and use Hindi -ā- causatives for direct, closely controlled causation while tracking lexical stem changes and ordinary agreement.
  • Indirect causatives in -vā-B2 — Use Hindi -vā- causatives to present an arranged, mediated, or delegated event, with the causative stem carrying ordinary TAM and agreement.
  • Causative argument markingC1 — Assign ने, को, and से to the causer, affected participant, intermediary, and patient in Hindi causative clauses.
  • करना कराना करवाना contrastsB2 — Distinguish doing an action, causing it directly, and arranging for it through करना, कराना, and करवाना.
  • Intransitive-transitive-causative setsB2 — Learn Hindi verb families that contrast a spontaneous event, a caused transitive event, and an indirectly arranged causative event.
  • Lexical irregular causativesC1 — Master high-frequency Hindi causatives whose stems change unpredictably, including खिलाना, पिलाना, सुलाना, बिठाना, दिखाना, and सिखाना.
  • Causatives with ने and कोC1 — Track the causer, caused participant, theme, and agreement controller in Hindi causatives using ने, को, and से.
  • Causative passivesC1 — Build passives from causative stems while keeping the causer, intermediary, affected participant, agreement, and TAM layers distinct.

Copulas

  • The copula होना overviewA1 — Use होना as a copula, existential and event verb, and auxiliary across present, past, negative, and question patterns.
  • Present copula हूँ हो है हैंA1 — Choose हूँ, हो, है, or हैं by person, number, and honorificity, and use the present copula as both a main verb and an auxiliary.
  • Past copula था थी थे थींA1 — Use था, थी, थे, and थीं for past identity, state, location, and auxiliary constructions, with gender-number agreement.
  • Negative copula patternsA1 — Negate identity, property, location, and auxiliary predicates with नहीं while preserving copula agreement and controlling scope.
  • Existential होनाA1 — Express that something exists or is available with a location or domain, an existent noun phrase, and an agreeing form of होना.
  • Locative and possessive होनाA1 — Use होना to locate entities and express possession through के पास or genitive relations, with agreement controlled by the located or possessed noun.
  • बनना रहना लगना as copular verbsA1 — Distinguish बनना ‘become,’ रहना ‘remain,’ and लगना ‘seem/feel’ as copular predicates with different event structures and agreement patterns.

Foundations

  • The infinitive in -nāA1 — Form Hindi infinitives with -ना and distinguish their citation, complement, verbal-noun, and agreeing obligation uses from finite predicates.
  • Verb stems and removing -nāA1 — Recover the Hindi lexical verb stem by removing -ना, then understand which aspectual, modal, and agreement layers attach to it.
  • Finite predicates and auxiliariesA1 — Build complete Hindi predicates by combining a lexical stem with aspect or modality, agreement morphology, and the appropriate finite auxiliary.
  • Agreement in gender and numberA1 — Track masculine, feminine, singular, and plural agreement across Hindi participles, predicates, and auxiliaries.
  • Person agreement in auxiliariesA1 — Choose हूँ, हो, है, and हैं by person, number, and honorificity while preserving agreement inside layered predicates.
  • Transitive and intransitive verbsA1 — Distinguish verbs with direct objects from one-participant verbs and predict their core agreement patterns in imperfective and perfective clauses.
  • Volitional and non-volitional predicatesA1 — Contrast controlled actions with experiences, accidental events, and states whose semantic experiencer is not an ordinary subject.

Future

  • Future suffixes -gā -gī -geA2 — Choose -गा, -गी, or -गे for gender-number and honorific agreement after the appropriate Hindi future personal base.
  • Future personal basesA2 — Build Hindi future predicates from person-number-honorific bases such as करूँ-, करे-, करो-, and करें- before adding gender-number endings.
  • First-person future formsA2 — Form and use Hindi first-person futures with मैं and हम, including gender, number, negation, questions, and irregular high-frequency bases.
  • Second-person future by honorific levelA2 — Choose तू, तुम, and आप future forms accurately across intimacy, familiarity, respect, gender, number, negation, and questions.
  • Third-person future formsA2 — Build Hindi third-person futures for singular, plural, feminine, inanimate, and honorific subjects, with accurate agreement and interpretation.
  • Predictive versus volitional futureA2 — Distinguish Hindi future forms that forecast an event from those that express intention, willingness, offers, promises, or refusal.
  • Future used for polite inferenceB2 — Use Hindi future forms such as होगा and होंगे to make present or past inferences, including socially softened assumptions.
  • Future in conditional clausesB2 — Use Hindi future forms naturally in अगर...तो conditions, and distinguish confident prediction from the less committed subjunctive pattern.
  • Prospective future with वालाB1 — Use oblique infinitive plus agreeing वाला and a copula to describe actions that are imminent, intended, or already developing.

Imperatives

  • Imperative overview by honorific levelB1 — Choose Hindi command forms for intimate तू, familiar तुम, and respectful or plural आप while keeping polarity and predicate layers aligned.
  • तू imperative stem formsB1 — Form intimate singular Hindi commands with the bare verb stem while controlling social stance, negation, and compound-command structure.
  • तुम imperative -oB1 — Form familiar singular and plural Hindi commands with -ओ, including vowel-stem changes, contracted forms, negation, and compound predicates.
  • आप imperative -iyeB1 — Form respectful singular and plural Hindi commands in -इए while handling vowel stems, polite requests, negation, and compound predicates.
  • Irregular polite imperativesB1 — Master high-frequency respectful forms such as कीजिए, दीजिए, लीजिए, and पीजिए, including their regular alternatives and vector uses.
  • Negative imperatives with मतB1 — Form direct Hindi prohibitions with मत while preserving the command form appropriate to तू, तुम, or आप.
  • Soft commands with nā and particlesB1 — Use infinitive-shaped reminders, postposed ना, ज़रा, तो, and related particles to adjust the warmth and force of Hindi commands.
  • Third-person and jussive commandsB2 — Use Hindi subjunctive forms for let/should commands aimed at third persons, groups, and inclusive first-person actions.
  • Permission with imperative formsB1 — Interpret Hindi imperatives as permission or encouragement when context means go ahead rather than do this.

Modality

  • सकना ability and possibilityA2 — Use सकना to express ability, practical possibility, and context-dependent permission while keeping its agreement and tense marking clear.
  • पाना achieved abilityB1 — Use verbal पाना to present ability as an attained result: managing, succeeding, or getting the opportunity to complete an action.
  • चाहना desire and polite requestsA2 — Express wants with चाहना and use its conditional and future-shaped forms to frame tactful questions, offers, and request prefaces.
  • चाहिए necessity and advisabilityA2 — Use invariant चाहिए for needs, advice, and normative necessity, with dative experiencers and agreement on infinitives or past auxiliaries.
  • पड़ना external necessityB1 — Use infinitive plus पड़ना when circumstances impose an action, with dative obligors and agreement controlled by the infinitive phrase.
  • होना obligation constructionsB1 — Use an agreeing infinitive plus होना for assigned, scheduled, intended, or contextually required actions.
  • लगना seeming and beginningB1 — Distinguish experiencer लगना ‘seem’ from infinitive-plus-लगना ‘begin,’ and track the different agreement controllers in each pattern.

Passive

  • Passive voice with जानाB1 — Build Hindi passives from a perfective participle plus जाना, with the patient controlling agreement and the outer verb carrying tense, aspect, and mood.
  • Passive stem plus -ā जानाB1 — Build the Hindi passive from an agreeing lexical participle and जाना, including regular forms, common irregular bases, and polarity.
  • Passive agreementB1 — Identify the agreement controller in Hindi passives, including feminine and plural patients, को-marked patients, and expressed agents.
  • Passive across aspect and tenseB2 — Combine the Hindi passive with habitual, progressive, perfective, future, subjunctive, and modal layers without copying English tense forms.
  • Passive with expressed agentC1 — Express a passive actor with द्वारा, के द्वारा, से, or के हाथों while choosing an appropriate Hindi register and preserving patient agreement.
  • Impersonal passiveC1 — Understand Hindi impersonal passives with default masculine singular agreement, से-marked experiencers, inability readings, and deliberative uses.
  • Ability-like passive negativesC2 — Use से-marked experiencers with negative passive predicates to express that someone cannot manage, tolerate, or bring themselves to perform an action.
  • Passive versus active with omitted agentC1 — Choose between a Hindi passive and an active clause whose understood subject is generic, recoverable, or deliberately unspoken.

Perfective

  • Simple perfective formationA2 — Form the Hindi simple perfective, distinguish regular and irregular stems, and choose agreement from clause structure.
  • Masculine perfective -ā and -eA2 — Choose masculine singular -ā and masculine plural or honorific -e in simple and auxiliary-bearing perfective predicates.
  • Feminine perfective -ī and -īṃA2 — Distinguish feminine singular -ī from standalone feminine plural -īṃ and control feminine agreement before auxiliaries.
  • Intransitive perfective agreementA2 — Make ordinary intransitive perfectives agree with their unmarked subject while recognizing agentive exceptions and experiencer structures.
  • Transitive perfective with नेA2 — Mark the actor with ने in canonical transitive perfectives and choose verb agreement from the eligible object rather than the semantic doer.
  • Perfective object agreementA2 — Make a transitive perfective agree with an eligible unmarked direct object after ने, including gender-number and auxiliary-bearing forms.
  • Default masculine singular agreementA2 — Use default masculine singular perfective morphology when case marking leaves no eligible agreement controller, without mistaking default for actor agreement.
  • Perfective of जानाA2 — Use the irregular perfective गया, गई, गए, and गईं for completed going, with subject agreement and appropriate auxiliary layers.
  • Perfective of करनाA2 — Use irregular किया, की, किए, and कीं in simple and auxiliary-bearing perfectives, with agreement determined by object marking.
  • Perfective of होनाA2 — Use हुआ, हुई, हुए, and हुईं for bounded occurrences and changes of state, with subject or event agreement and optional auxiliary layers.
  • Present perfectA2 — Build the Hindi present perfect from an agreeing perfective plus a present form of होना to connect a completed event or resulting state to the present.
  • Past perfect and pluperfect readingsA2 — Combine a perfective with था, थी, थे, or थीं to place a completed event or resulting state in an earlier past frame.

Present and Habitual

  • Simple present and habitual meaningA2 — Use the Hindi habitual construction for routines, repeated events, dispositions, and many current states rather than matching English present forms mechanically.
  • Habitual participle formationA2 — Form the Hindi habitual participle from a verb stem plus -ता, -ती, or -ते and apply gender-number agreement before adding a finite auxiliary.
  • Habitual with present copulaA2 — Combine an agreeing habitual participle with हूँ, हो, है, or हैं to build present routines, dispositions, and characteristic states.
  • Habitual with past copulaA2 — Combine an agreeing habitual participle with था, थी, थे, or थीं to describe former routines, repeated past events, and past dispositions.
  • Generic and timeless habitualA2 — Use the Hindi habitual for general truths, characteristic properties, rules, and recurring states rather than one event happening now.
  • Repeated-event habitualA2 — Present routines and recurring events with habitual morphology, frequency expressions, and present or past auxiliaries.
  • Habitual negation and auxiliary omissionB1 — Form negative Hindi habituals with नहीं and understand when the present auxiliary is naturally omitted, retained, or required.

Progressive

  • Progressive रहा constructionA2 — Build progressive predicates from a verb stem, agreeing रहा material, and a tense or mood auxiliary.
  • Present progressiveA2 — Use stem + रहा/रही/रहे + present auxiliary for events unfolding now, temporary situations, changes, and arranged future plans.
  • Past progressiveA2 — Use stem + रहा/रही/रहे + था/थी/थे/थीं for events ongoing at a past reference time and narrative background.
  • Habitual versus progressiveA2 — Choose habitual ता/ती/ते for routines and characteristics, and रहा/रही/रहे for events viewed as ongoing.
  • Progressive negation and auxiliary retentionB1 — Negate Hindi progressive predicates with नहीं while retaining the auxiliary that supplies present or past person-number anchoring.

Subjunctive

  • Subjunctive overviewA2 — Recognize and use the Hindi subjunctive for desired, possible, contingent, and nonasserted situations without confusing it with the future.
  • Present subjunctive personal endingsA2 — Form the Hindi simple subjunctive with -ूँ, -े, -ो, and -ें endings, including the major vowel-final stem patterns.
  • Subjunctive of होनाB1 — Use होऊँ (also हूँ), हो, and हों to place identity, location, existence, states, and layered aspectual predicates under possibility or desire.
  • Subjunctive after चाहनाB1 — Choose between an infinitive and a कि-clause with the subjunctive after चाहना, while keeping desire-holder and embedded-subject agreement separate.
  • Subjunctive in purpose clausesB1 — Use ताकि with the Hindi subjunctive to express intended outcomes, prevention, and goals with their own finite clause.
  • Subjunctive in conditional clausesB1 — Build open Hindi conditions with अगर or यदि and the subjunctive, including negative, honorific, and layered predicates.
  • Subjunctive in wishes and blessingsB1 — Use Hindi subjunctive and optative patterns for hopes, blessings, well-wishes, and negative wishes across levels of respect.
  • Subjunctive with possibility and doubtB1 — Express open possibility, uncertainty, and apprehension with Hindi subjunctive patterns without copying English or Spanish mood rules.
  • Past counterfactual होताB2 — Build unreal past conditions with perfective participles and agreeing होता, and distinguish them from factual था and open subjunctives.
  • Subjunctive versus future formsB1 — Distinguish Hindi subjunctive personal forms from futures that add -गा, -गी, or -गे, and choose between nonassertion and prediction.
  • Hypothetical होता paradigmB2 — Use bare होता, होती, होते, and होतीं in unreal conditions, imagined states, and counterfactual consequences.

Word Formation

Borrowed Morphology

Compounding

  • Compound nounsB2 — Understand how Hindi combines nouns into lexical units, assigns head meaning and gender, and marks plural, case, and spelling.
  • Compound adjectivesB2 — Learn how Hindi builds descriptive compounds, how their final member controls agreement, and which patterns belong to formal or mixed registers.

Gender Derivation

Prefixation

Reduplication

  • Reduplication and distributive formationC1 — Understand how Hindi repeats words and stems to distribute participants, space, time, degree, and portions without treating every repetition as emphasis.
  • Echo words and expressive morphologyC1 — Use Hindi echo formations and sound-symbolic pairs to widen a category, signal approximation, or add an attitude without confusing them with exact reduplication.

Suffixation

  • Agent nouns with -vālāA2 — Build natural Hindi labels for people associated with an object, place, or action by using the agreeing forms वाला, वाली, and वाले.
  • Abstract nouns with -pan and -īA2 — Understand how -पन and -ई form qualities, states, relationships, and activities—and why their meanings are not interchangeable.
  • Adjectives with -ī -ik and -vānB1 — Distinguish three important adjective-building patterns and learn their meanings, agreement behavior, spelling, and registers.

Word Order and Information Structure

Discourse

  • Information structure in answersC2 — Shape Hindi answers so that given material, requested information, correction, particles, and prosodic prominence match the question.

Dislocation

Focus

  • Focus immediately before the verbB1 — Use Hindi’s preverbal field to place new, questioned, or contrastive information close to the predicate while keeping the verb complex intact.
  • Contrastive focus with हीB1 — Place ही directly after a Hindi constituent to identify it as the exclusive, precise, or corrective alternative in focus.
  • Additive focus with भीB1 — Place भी after the constituent it adds to an existing set, and distinguish additive, scalar, free-choice, and negative-scope readings.
  • Exhaustive and corrective focusB1 — Use ही, सिर्फ़, केवल, preverbal placement, and explicit alternatives to identify the sole valid choice or correct a mistaken one.

Marked Orders

Neutral Order

  • Neutral subject-object-verb orderA1 — Build neutral Hindi SOV clauses and understand how topic, focus, prosody, and marked orders reshape the same proposition.
  • Indirect and direct object orderA1 — Order Hindi recipients and transferred objects naturally, then rearrange them deliberately to mark topic, contrast, or afterthought.
  • Time manner and place orderingA2 — Arrange Hindi time, place, and manner expressions by scope and discourse status rather than copying English sentence-final order.
  • Postpositional phrase placementA2 — Place complete Hindi postpositional phrases before the predicate and move them as units to express frame, topic, focus, or afterthought.
  • Negation and adverb placementA2 — Place नहीं and Hindi adverbs according to predicate scope, constituent contrast, and the information structure of the clause.

Scrambling

  • Scrambling licensed by case markingB2 — Reorder intact Hindi constituents for topic and focus while using case markers to preserve their grammatical roles.
  • Limits on scramblingC1 — Recognize the constituency, clause-boundary, scope, prosodic, and processing constraints that keep Hindi word order from being freely permutable.

Topic

  • Topic-comment organizationA2 — Organize Hindi clauses around an established topic followed by a comment, while distinguishing topic from grammatical subject and narrow focus.
  • Left-dislocated topicsA2 — Place a discourse topic before a complete Hindi clause and use a resumptive form to show its role inside the clause.
  • Contrastive topics with तोB1 — Use post-topic तो to set one person, time, place, or proposition against relevant alternatives without confusing it with conditional तो.
  • Object fronting and topicalizationB1 — Move a Hindi object to the left edge to make it the current topic while preserving its case, agreement behavior, and verb-final clause structure.

Weight

  • Pronoun and heavy-phrase orderingB2 — Place short given pronouns before longer new phrases while allowing focus, topic, and clause weight to override that processing preference.

Writing System

Conjuncts

  • Virama or halant ्B1 — Understand how the virama cancels a consonant's inherent vowel, builds conjuncts, and sometimes remains visibly written in Hindi.
  • Common two-consonant conjunctsB1 — Learn to decode frequent Devanagari conjuncts as two consonants without an intervening vowel and recognize them inside everyday Hindi words.
  • क्ष त्र ज्ञ and traditional conjunct namesB1 — Decode क्ष, त्र, and ज्ञ as consonant sequences, connect their traditional names to modern Hindi pronunciation, and spell them safely in Unicode.
  • Repha and rakar forms of रB2 — Learn how र changes shape before and after another consonant, how to type repha and rakar in logical order, and how morphology guides their reading.
  • Conjuncts with half-forms and stacked shapesB2 — Learn why consonant clusters appear as half-forms, compact ligatures, or stacked shapes and how to recover their Unicode sequence and Hindi reading.

Consonants

  • Velar consonants क ख ग घ ङA1 — Learn the five Devanagari velars क, ख, ग, घ, and ङ, including voicing, aspiration, the rare independent ङ, anusvara spellings, and Unicode-safe formation.
  • Palatal consonants च छ ज झ ञA1 — Learn the Devanagari row च, छ, ज, झ, and ञ, including affricate contrasts, aspiration, the rare letter ञ, anusvara spellings, and conjunct behavior.
  • Retroflex consonants ट ठ ड ढ णA1 — Learn the retroflex row ट, ठ, ड, ढ, and ण, including aspiration, dental contrasts, anusvara before retroflex stops, and the separate flapped letters ड़ and ढ़.
  • Dental consonants त थ द ध नA2 — Learn the dental row त, थ, द, ध, and न, including aspiration, retroflex contrasts, grammatical endings, anusvara assimilation, and conjunct spelling.
  • Labial consonants प फ ब भ मA2 — Learn the labial row प, फ, ब, भ, and म, including aspiration, the फ/फ़ distinction, homorganic anusvara, grammatical endings, and schwa deletion.
  • Semivowels य र ल वA2 — Learn य, र, ल, and व, including Hindi's fixed y-r-l-v romanization, the special conjunct forms of र, the variable sound of व, grammatical endings, and schwa deletion.
  • Sibilants and h श ष स हA2 — Distinguish Hindi श, ष, स, and ह in spelling, learn where each occurs, and read them correctly inside words and conjuncts.

Digital Hindi

Extended Letters

Foundations

Marks

Reading

Vowels

  • Independent vowels अ आ इ ईA1 — Learn when Hindi writes अ, आ, इ, and ई as independent letters and how their shapes and vowel lengths differ from attached vowel signs.
  • Independent vowels उ ऊ ऋA1 — Learn the independent letters उ, ऊ, and ऋ, including modern Hindi's ri pronunciation of ऋ and its restricted Sanskritic distribution.
  • Independent vowels ए ऐ ओ औA1 — Learn the independent letters ए, ऐ, ओ, and औ, their syllable-initial distribution, and key contrasts such as ओर versus और.
  • Vowel signs ा ि ीA1 — Learn how the dependent vowel signs ा, ि, and ी combine with consonants, including the special visual order of ि and the difference between spelling and pronunciation.
  • Vowel signs ु ू ृA1 — Learn how ु, ू, and ृ attach below consonants, how special font shapes such as रु and रू work, and why ृ is limited mainly to Sanskrit-derived vocabulary.
  • Vowel signs े ै ो ौA1 — Learn the core dependent vowel signs े, ै, ो, and ौ, plus the modern loan spelling ऑ/ॉ, with their contrasts, grammatical roles, and Unicode-safe formation.
  • Inherent a and the absence of a vowel signA1 — Understand what a bare Devanagari consonant writes, when Hindi pronounces or deletes its inherent a, and how this differs from using a vowel sign or virama.