Unlike the gerund, which is invariable, the past participle has a second life as a true adjective. When it modifies a noun or acts as a predicate adjective, it agrees in gender and number with the thing it describes. This is a crucial difference from English, where -ed and -en forms look the same no matter what they modify.
Agreement in Gender and Number
When a past participle functions as an adjective, it takes the same four endings as any regular -o/-a adjective.
| Masculine singular | Feminine singular | Masculine plural | Feminine plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| cerrado | cerrada | cerrados | cerradas |
| abierto | abierta | abiertos | abiertas |
| roto | rota | rotos | rotas |
| escrito | escrita | escritos | escritas |
| cansado | cansada | cansados | cansadas |
La puerta está cerrada.
The door is closed.
Los libros están abiertos sobre la mesa.
The books are open on the table.
Las ventanas están rotas.
The windows are broken.
Notice how cerrada (feminine singular), abiertos (masculine plural), and rotas (feminine plural) each match their noun. The same rules apply when the participle sits directly next to a noun as a descriptor.
Me encantan las puertas pintadas de azul.
I love doors painted blue.
With Estar: Describing a State
The most common pattern is estar + past participle, which describes the state or condition something is in as a result of a previous action. This is how Spanish expresses most of what English would say with to be + past participle.
| Spanish | English |
|---|---|
| Estoy cansado. | I am tired. |
| Ella está enamorada. | She is in love. |
| La comida está preparada. | The meal is ready. |
| Las luces están encendidas. | The lights are on. |
| Estamos aburridos. | We are bored. |
La tienda está cerrada los domingos.
The store is closed on Sundays.
Note that the participle still agrees with the subject in the estar construction: a woman says estoy cansada, a group of men says estamos cansados, and so on.
With Ser: The Passive Voice
When you need a true passive — the subject receives an action performed by someone else — Spanish uses ser + past participle. The agent (if mentioned) is introduced with por.
| Spanish | English |
|---|---|
| El libro fue escrito por García Márquez. | The book was written by García Márquez. |
| La casa fue construida en 1920. | The house was built in 1920. |
| Los acuerdos fueron firmados ayer. | The agreements were signed yesterday. |
| Las cartas fueron enviadas esta mañana. | The letters were sent this morning. |
Cien años de soledad fue escrito por Gabriel García Márquez.
One Hundred Years of Solitude was written by Gabriel García Márquez.
La catedral fue construida en el siglo XVI.
The cathedral was built in the 16th century.
Again, the participle agrees with the subject: el libro fue escrito (masculine singular) but la novela fue escrita (feminine singular).
Estar vs Ser: A Quick Contrast
The same participle can appear with both verbs, but the meaning shifts.
| Ser (action / passive) | Estar (state / result) |
|---|---|
| La puerta fue cerrada por el portero. (The door was closed by the doorman — action.) | La puerta está cerrada. (The door is closed — current state.) |
| La carta fue escrita por el jefe. (The letter was written by the boss.) | La carta está escrita. (The letter is already written — ready.) |
La puerta fue cerrada por el viento.
The door was closed (shut) by the wind.
La puerta está cerrada, no se puede entrar.
The door is closed, you cannot come in.
Modifying Nouns Directly
A past participle can sit right next to a noun, just like any other adjective. It still agrees in gender and number.
Un hombre cansado entró al restaurante.
A tired man walked into the restaurant.
Prefiero una camisa planchada.
I prefer an ironed shirt.
This is the Spanish solution to situations where English might be tempted to use an -ing adjective. Remember from Gerund Usage and Restrictions that Spanish does not allow the gerund in this role — the past participle is the correct choice for "a broken window" (una ventana rota), "a written agreement" (un acuerdo escrito), or "a closed shop" (una tienda cerrada).
For the formation rules behind all these participles, revisit Past Participle Formation.
Related Topics
- Past Participle FormationA2 — Regular past participles end in -ado for -ar verbs and -ido for -er and -ir verbs, with twelve common irregulars and accented -ído for vowel stems.
- Gerund Usage and RestrictionsB1 — The Spanish gerund describes actions in progress or adverbial manner but cannot be used as an adjective, a noun, or after prepositions.
- Ser vs Estar: OverviewA2 — A decision framework for choosing between ser and estar, with mnemonics and a decision tree.