Academic Portuguese is its own dialect. A scholarly essay in PT-PT uses constructions — impersonal pronominal passives, hedged evidentials, Latinate vocabulary — that are rare in journalism, almost absent from conversation, and yet are the standard, unremarkable register of a university article or thesis. If you want to be read seriously by a Portuguese academic audience, you cannot just translate your ideas into correct Portuguese; you must translate them into correct academic Portuguese. The two are not the same.
This page covers the conventions in detail: how to present claims impersonally, how to hedge without retreating, how to structure a paragraph around connectives, how to cite sources, how to write a resumo, how to manage the gap between the academic register in the humanities (where first-person is sometimes allowed and rhetorical flair is valued) and in STEM (where terseness and depersonalization dominate).
General principles
Portuguese academic writing is governed by a short list of principles that apply across disciplines.
- Objectivity and distance. The writer presents claims as the product of inquiry, not personal assertion. Avoid unmotivated eu.
- Hedging. Conclusions are provisional, contingent on the evidence. Absolute claims draw suspicion.
- Support. Every substantive assertion gets a citation, a reference, or an empirical demonstration.
- Structure. Introduction, well-organized body (by theme, argument, or method), conclusion. Section headers where appropriate.
- Register consistency. Formal vocabulary, standard grammar, no colloquialisms, no slang, no contractions (tá, prá, cumé are out).
- Precision. Pick the right word, cite the right source, quantify where possible.
Avoiding the first person
Portuguese academic writing, like its English counterpart, prefers to sidestep eu. The difference is that Portuguese has richer resources for doing so.
The impersonal pronominal passive (the -se passive)
This is the signature move of PT-PT academic writing. A verb in the 3rd person with the clitic se creates a construction that is both impersonal and agentless.
Analisa-se, neste artigo, o impacto das políticas de austeridade.
This article analyzes the impact of austerity policies. (lit. *one analyzes / it is analyzed*)
Verificou-se uma correlação significativa entre as variáveis.
A significant correlation was verified between the variables.
Procedeu-se à recolha de dados em cinco escolas secundárias.
Data collection was carried out in five secondary schools.
Conclui-se que os resultados corroboram a hipótese inicial.
It is concluded that the results support the initial hypothesis.
Verb agreement matters. When the object is plural, the verb is plural. Getting this wrong in academic writing is a red flag.
Analisaram-se os resultados obtidos.
The results obtained were analyzed. (plural verb because *resultados* is plural)
Observaram-se padrões consistentes na amostra estudada.
Consistent patterns were observed in the sample studied.
Replacement formulas for eu penso / digo / argumento
Direct first-person assertion is marked in academic PT-PT. Use the repertoire of impersonal hedges instead.
| Instead of | Use | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Eu argumento que... | Argumenta-se que... / Sustenta-se neste artigo que... | impersonal argument |
| Eu penso que... | Considera-se que... / Entende-se que... | impersonal view |
| Nós vemos que... | Pode observar-se que... / É possível verificar que... | impersonal observation |
| Eu mostro que... | Demonstra-se que... / Fica demonstrado que... | impersonal demonstration |
| Eu concluo que... | Conclui-se que... / Depreende-se que... | impersonal conclusion |
| No meu artigo... | No presente artigo... / Neste estudo... | impersonal reference |
Sustenta-se, neste ensaio, que a identidade nacional se constrói por oposição ao outro.
This essay maintains that national identity is constructed in opposition to the other.
Entende-se, para efeitos deste estudo, que o conceito de democracia participativa se refere a...
For the purposes of this study, the concept of participatory democracy is taken to mean...
When first person is allowed
In humanities writing — literary criticism, philosophy, some branches of history — first-person discussion is tolerated and sometimes expected. The convention is defendo or proponho rather than argumento (which carries more aggressive overtones in Portuguese than in English).
Defendo, ao longo deste ensaio, que a obra de Pessoa não pode ser lida fora do seu contexto modernista.
I argue, throughout this essay, that Pessoa's work cannot be read outside its modernist context. (humanities)
Proponho uma leitura alternativa da cena final de *Blimunda*.
I propose an alternative reading of the final scene of *Blimunda*. (humanities)
Even here, a first-person claim is usually announced, not casually inserted. Eu penso, at the start of an academic argument, reads as naive.
Hedging: the backbone of scholarly voice
Academic Portuguese is allergic to unqualified assertion. Claims are hedged, probability is signaled, the writer's commitment is calibrated to the evidence.
| Hedge | Literal | Function |
|---|---|---|
| parece que + indicative | it seems that | soft claim |
| afigura-se que + subjunctive/indicative | it appears that | formal soft claim |
| tudo indica que | everything indicates that | evidential hedge |
| considera-se que | it is considered that | standard academic hedge |
| entende-se que | it is understood that | positions received view |
| pode(-se) dizer que | one can say that | hedged assertion |
| é possível afirmar que | it is possible to affirm that | carefully hedged strong claim |
| há indícios de que | there are signs that | empirical hedge |
| sugere-se que | it is suggested that | propositional hedge |
| é plausível supor que | it is plausible to suppose that | scientific hedge |
| tende a + infinitive | tends to | statistical hedge |
| de um modo geral | generally speaking | scoping hedge |
| em certa medida | to a certain extent | degree hedge |
| não raro | not rarely (= often) | litotic hedge |
Os dados recolhidos parecem indicar uma correlação significativa entre as duas variáveis.
The data collected appear to indicate a significant correlation between the two variables.
Afigura-se razoável concluir que o modelo proposto carece de revisão.
It appears reasonable to conclude that the proposed model requires revision.
Há indícios de que esta tendência se acentuará nos próximos anos.
There are signs that this trend will intensify in coming years.
Pode dizer-se, em certa medida, que a teoria se confirma, ainda que com reservas.
It can be said, to a certain extent, that the theory is confirmed, albeit with reservations.
Avoid absolute markers
Words like obviamente, claramente, sem dúvida, indiscutivelmente are red flags in academic PT-PT. They signal unearned certainty. If something is obvious, demonstrate it; don't assert that it is obvious.
❌ Obviamente, a teoria marxista é correta.
*Obviamente* makes an unearned claim. Academic writing does not declare its conclusions obvious.
✅ A análise sugere que a teoria marxista fornece um enquadramento útil, ainda que com limitações.
The analysis suggests that Marxist theory provides a useful framework, albeit with limitations.
Modal verbs as hedges
Portuguese modal verbs — poder, dever, haver de — do a lot of hedging work.
Estes resultados poderão contribuir para futuras investigações na área.
These results may contribute to future investigations in the area.
O fenómeno deverá ser analisado em maior profundidade.
The phenomenon should be analyzed in greater depth.
Será necessário recolher mais dados para confirmar esta hipótese.
It will be necessary to collect more data to confirm this hypothesis.
Subjunctive in academic writing
The subjunctive appears throughout academic PT-PT, especially after hedge phrases and in concessive constructions.
É importante que se considerem as implicações éticas desta abordagem.
It is important that the ethical implications of this approach be considered.
Embora os dados indiquem uma tendência clara, convém não sobrestimar a sua abrangência.
Although the data indicate a clear trend, it is advisable not to overestimate its scope.
Mesmo que se admita a validade da hipótese, restam questões por responder.
Even if one accepts the validity of the hypothesis, questions remain unanswered.
Convém que se analisem também as críticas formuladas por outros autores.
It is advisable that the criticisms formulated by other authors also be analyzed.
Connectives: the skeleton of academic prose
Academic paragraphs are built on connectives. Each connective does a specific job: introducing, adding, contrasting, concluding. Mastering the inventory is arguably the highest-leverage skill in Portuguese academic writing.
By function
| Function | Connectives (formal) |
|---|---|
| Introducing the topic | no presente artigo / ensaio / estudo; este trabalho aborda; o objetivo deste artigo é; neste trabalho propõe-se |
| Adding information | além disso, ademais, acresce que, importa também referir, por outro lado, por sua vez, paralelamente, outrossim (highly formal) |
| Contrast / concession | no entanto, contudo, todavia, porém, não obstante, apesar de, ainda que, embora, malgrado, conquanto, se bem que |
| Cause | visto que, uma vez que, dado que, em virtude de, porquanto, pelo facto de |
| Result | por conseguinte, deste modo, desta forma, assim, donde se segue que, em consequência, destarte (highly formal) |
| Examples | por exemplo, a título de exemplo, designadamente, nomeadamente, como ilustração, é o caso de, veja-se |
| Reformulation | ou seja, isto é, por outras palavras, quer dizer, em suma, em síntese, melhor dizendo |
| Conclusion | em conclusão, em suma, para concluir, finalmente, em derradeira análise, em jeito de conclusão |
| Order / sequence | em primeiro lugar, em segundo lugar, por fim, seguidamente, num primeiro momento, num segundo momento |
Uma vez que os dados são limitados, impõe-se uma análise cautelosa das conclusões.
Given that the data are limited, a cautious analysis of the conclusions is called for.
Não obstante as limitações apontadas, os resultados confirmam a hipótese inicial.
Notwithstanding the limitations noted, the results confirm the initial hypothesis.
Por conseguinte, é necessário rever o modelo teórico adotado, a saber, o proposto por Mateus (2003).
Consequently, the adopted theoretical model — namely, the one proposed by Mateus (2003) — must be revised.
Em primeiro lugar, examinaremos os dados; em segundo lugar, discutiremos as suas implicações; por fim, apresentaremos as conclusões.
First, we will examine the data; second, we will discuss its implications; finally, we will present the conclusions.
Em suma, a investigação contribui para o conhecimento na área, embora sejam necessários estudos adicionais.
In sum, the research contributes to knowledge in the area, although further studies are necessary.
Common errors with connectives
Beware of connectives that feel formal but belong to specific registers.
- Outrossim and destarte are highly literary. Using them in a STEM paper can sound affected; in humanities prose they are appropriate.
- Malgrado is a French borrowing and now standard; conquanto is slightly old-fashioned but accepted.
- No entanto and contudo are neutral and safe everywhere.
- Portanto is fine but slightly more informal than por conseguinte.
Citations: Portuguese academic conventions
Portuguese academic writing follows a few conventional patterns for citing sources. The exact style (APA, Chicago, Vancouver) depends on discipline; these are the common Portuguese phrasings.
In-text citation formats
| Format | Example | Use |
|---|---|---|
| (Autor, ano) | (Saramago, 1995) | standard parenthetical |
| (Autor, ano, p. X) | (Saramago, 1995, p. 47) | with page number (APA-style) |
| (Autor, ano: X) | (Saramago, 1995: 47) | with page number (common in humanities) |
| (X apud Y, ano) | (Adorno apud Eco, 1962) | cited through another author |
| (Autor1, Autor2 e Autor3, ano) | (Mateus, Brito e Duarte, 2003) | multiple authors |
| (Autor et al., ano) | (Mateus et al., 2003) | three or more authors |
Integrating citations into prose
| Formula | Example |
|---|---|
| Segundo X (ano), ... | Segundo Lourenço (1988), ... |
| De acordo com X (ano), ... | De acordo com Medeiros (2005), ... |
| Conforme X (ano), ... | Conforme afirma Mateus (2003), ... |
| Para X (ano), ... | Para Pessoa (1925), ... |
| Como sustenta X (ano), ... | Como sustenta Saramago (1995), ... |
| X (ano) defende que... | Saramago (1995) defende que... |
| X (ano) argumenta que... | Eco (1962) argumenta que... |
Segundo Lourenço (1988: 23), a identidade portuguesa constrói-se na relação com o mar.
According to Lourenço (1988: 23), Portuguese identity is constructed in relation to the sea.
Como sustenta Medeiros (2005), o regime salazarista moldou a cultura académica durante décadas.
As Medeiros (2005) maintains, the Salazar regime shaped academic culture for decades.
A distinção entre sujeito e predicado é, conforme nota Mateus (2003), uma construção teórica.
The distinction between subject and predicate is, as Mateus (2003) notes, a theoretical construct.
Para Eco (1962), a obra de arte aberta permite múltiplas interpretações do leitor.
For Eco (1962), the open work of art allows the reader multiple interpretations.
Direct quotation
Short quotations appear inline with quotation marks: O autor afirma que «a linguagem é um ato social» (Bourdieu, 1982: 12). PT-PT uses guillemets («») for quoted speech or text, though curly quotes ("") are also accepted in modern publications. Long quotations (more than 3-4 lines) are usually indented in a separate block, without quotation marks.
Conforme observa Lourenço (2005: 34), «a saudade é uma emoção propriamente portuguesa».
As Lourenço (2005: 34) observes, \"saudade is a properly Portuguese emotion.\"
Bibliography
The bibliography (Bibliografia or Referências) appears at the end, alphabetized by author surname. The exact format depends on discipline, but a common pattern is:
- LOURENÇO, E. (1988). Nós e a Europa ou as duas razões. Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional.
- MATEUS, M. H. M.; BRITO, A. M.; DUARTE, I.; FARIA, I. H. (2003). Gramática da Língua Portuguesa. Lisboa: Caminho.
- PESSOA, F. (1925). «Tabacaria». Presença, 39, 3-5.
Book titles are in italic; article titles in quotation marks or guillemets; journal names in italic.
The resumo (abstract)
The PT-PT resumo has its own conventions. It is usually a single paragraph (150-300 words), organized around four moves: motivation, method, results, conclusion.
Tenses in the resumo
- Present tense for what the article is/does: O presente artigo analisa...
- Past tense (pretérito perfeito simples) for what was done: Recolheram-se dados... Analisaram-se entrevistas...
- Present tense again for conclusions: Conclui-se que... Os resultados sugerem que...
O presente estudo analisa o impacto das políticas de austeridade na saúde mental em Portugal entre 2010 e 2015. Recolheram-se dados através de entrevistas semiestruturadas a cinquenta profissionais de saúde. Os resultados evidenciam um aumento significativo da procura de serviços psiquiátricos e uma deterioração das condições de trabalho clínico. Conclui-se que as medidas de austeridade tiveram consequências duradouras no sistema público de saúde.
This study analyzes the impact of austerity policies on mental health in Portugal between 2010 and 2015. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with fifty healthcare professionals. The results show a significant increase in demand for psychiatric services and a deterioration of clinical working conditions. It is concluded that the austerity measures had lasting consequences on the public health system.
Keywords (palavras-chave)
Three to six keywords follow the resumo, typically separated by semicolons. No capitals except for proper nouns.
Palavras-chave: saúde mental; austeridade; políticas públicas; Portugal; serviço nacional de saúde.
Structuring a paragraph
A strong academic paragraph in PT-PT opens with a topic sentence, develops the claim with evidence, and links to the next paragraph. The transition usually comes through a connective.
A crise económica de 2008 teve repercussões duradouras no mercado de trabalho português. Entre 2010 e 2013, a taxa de desemprego superou os 15%, atingindo valores historicamente elevados. Os dados do Instituto Nacional de Estatística evidenciam que a recuperação, embora iniciada em 2014, foi desigual entre regiões. Assim, torna-se necessário analisar não apenas os indicadores agregados, mas também as dinâmicas regionais.
The 2008 economic crisis had lasting repercussions on the Portuguese labor market. Between 2010 and 2013, the unemployment rate exceeded 15%, reaching historically high levels. Data from the National Statistics Institute show that the recovery, though begun in 2014, was uneven across regions. Thus, it becomes necessary to analyze not only aggregate indicators but also regional dynamics.
Note the moves: claim (1st sentence), quantified evidence (2nd), citation of source (3rd), connective transition to next point (4th).
Section transitions
Longer papers use explicit transitions between sections.
Passando ao próximo ponto, importa examinar as implicações metodológicas da abordagem adotada.
Moving on to the next point, it is important to examine the methodological implications of the approach adopted.
Abordemos agora a dimensão empírica da investigação.
Let us now address the empirical dimension of the research.
Vejamos, a seguir, como estes resultados se articulam com a literatura existente.
Let us now see how these results connect with existing literature.
Numbers and statistics
- Spelled out for small numbers (typically under 10): três pontos, as duas hipóteses, cinco participantes.
- Numerals for technical or precise values: 34,5%, 42 participantes, p < 0,05.
- Decimals use a comma in PT: 3,14 (not 3.14). Thousands separator is a period or a space: 10.000 or 10 000.
- Percentages: 34,5% (with comma-decimal) or, more formally, 34,5 por cento.
Participaram no estudo quarenta e dois indivíduos (42), dos quais 34,5% eram mulheres.
Forty-two individuals (42) took part in the study, of whom 34.5% were women.
✅ O presente artigo aborda a política monetária do BCE.
The present article addresses the monetary policy of the ECB.
Key takeaways
- Academic PT-PT is impersonal, hedged, structured, and lexically formal.
- The pronominal passive (estuda-se, verifica-se, observaram-se) is the signature move — use it where English uses "we" or "one." Verb agrees with the noun in number.
- Avoid first person unless the discipline allows it. Use considera-se, sustenta-se, argumenta-se, demonstra-se. In humanities, defendo, proponho are acceptable.
- Hedge constantly. Parece que, afigura-se que, tudo indica que, há indícios de que, é plausível supor que. Avoid obviamente, claramente, sem dúvida.
- Connectives are the skeleton. Master não obstante, visto que, por conseguinte, em suma, nomeadamente, a título de exemplo, ou seja.
- Cite with (Autor, ano) or (Autor, ano: página). Integrate with segundo, conforme, de acordo com, como sustenta.
- Structure the resumo in four moves: motivation, method, results, conclusion. Use present and past tenses appropriately.
- Register consistency: no slang, no contractions, no anglicisms where Portuguese works. Italicize foreign terms.
- Disciplines differ: humanities allows more first-person and rhetorical flourish; STEM demands terse impersonality.
Related Topics
- Written vs Spoken PortugueseB1 — How European Portuguese grammar, vocabulary, and phonology diverge between the written page and the spoken conversation — and how to navigate the gap.
- Tu, Você, O Senhor/A SenhoraA2 — Choosing the right form of address in European Portuguese — the three-tier system, the uncomfortable role of *você*, and the PT-PT habit of avoiding pronouns altogether.
- Literary StyleC1 — The distinctive features of European Portuguese literary language — archaic tenses, inversions, mesoclise, and the stylistic signatures of Camões, Eça, Pessoa, Saramago, and Lobo Antunes.
- Academic and Professional PortugueseB2 — A roadmap to formal European Portuguese for academic writing, professional correspondence, presentations, and the conservative literary register that Portugal still uses in serious contexts.
- Formal Academic ConnectorsC1 — The high-register connectors that govern Portuguese essays, legal writing, and academic prose — *não obstante*, *ao passo que*, *conquanto*, *porquanto*, *outrossim*, *destarte*, and the principled use of *por conseguinte* and *com efeito*.
- Se-Passive (Passiva Pronominal)B1 — Vendem-se livros — the passive with clitic se, where the verb agrees with the logical patient. Covers the classic prescriptive rule, the colloquial tension (vende-se casas vs vendem-se casas), and why the agent cannot be expressed.