Learn French: Je n'ai pas le temps.

In French, when the negative word ne is placed right before a verb that starts with a vowel (like ai), the e is dropped and replaced with an apostrophe. This makes it flow better when spoken. So, ne ai pas becomes n'ai pas.

Where is the word for "do" in this negative sentence?

French doesn't use helper words like "do" or "does" to make a sentence negative. To say "do not", you simply wrap the main verb with ne and pas. Here, wrapping the verb ai (have) gives you n'ai pas, which translates to "do not have".

Why is there a le before temps when the English translation doesn't say "the time"?

In English, we usually drop the word "the" when talking about general concepts like time. French, however, almost always requires an article. You have to say le temps (literally "the time") even when making a general statement like "I do not have time".

Does the 's' at the end of temps mean it is plural?

No, temps is singular here, which is why it uses the singular article le rather than the plural les. The French word for time simply has a silent 's' at the end even in its singular form.