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### Formal Causal Connectors

In the previous lesson, we used *como* at the beginning of a sentence to mean "since." When you want to sound a bit more formal—perfect for scientific contexts—you can use the causal connectors **já que**, **visto que**, and **dado que**.

Unlike *como*, which must start the sentence to mean "since", these phrases can be placed either at the beginning OR in the middle of a sentence to introduce a reason.

### Já que (Since)

**Já que** simply means "since." Let's see how to use it when discussing **o laboratório** (the laboratory) and its **equipamento** (equipment).

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### Visto que (Seeing that)

Translating to "seeing that," **visto que** works exactly the same way. It is a very natural fit when you need to **observar** (observe) a scientific process, such as a **reação** (reaction).

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### Dado que (Given that)

**Dado que** means "given that." This is ideal for explaining the logic behind an experiment or an **análise** (analysis) involving a **produto químico** (chemical product).

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Formal causal connectors (já que, visto que...)

adjective

adverb

conjunction

contraction

determiner

interjection

noun

numeral

particle

phrase

prefix

prep

preposition

pron

pronoun

sentence

verb

Demonstratives and the verb to be (isto é, o, a)

Subject pronouns and negation (eu, não)

Yes/no questions and question words (quem, o que)

Plural pronouns, articles, and verbs (somos, são, os, as)

Origin and possession (de, do, da)

Introductions (chamar-se)

Indefinite articles (um, uma, uns, umas)

The verb to be for locations (estar)

Contrasting the two verbs to be (ser vs. estar)

Preposition for locations (em, no, na)

Numbers 0 to 10 (zero, um, dois)

The verb to have (tenho, tem)

Regular -ar verbs (falar, trabalhar)

Regular -er verbs (comer, beber)

Regular -ir verbs (abrir, partir)

My, your, and our (o meu, a nossa)

His, hers, and theirs (dele, dela)

Adjective agreement and placement

Days of the week (segunda-feira)

Months of the year (janeiro)

Counting by tens to 100 (trinta, quarenta...)

Telling time (é uma, são...)

Asking about time (quando, a que horas)

The verb to go (ir)

Prepositions of direction (a, para)

Preposition a contractions (ao, à, aos, às)

Prepositions of place (ao lado de, em frente de...)

Demonstratives (este, esse, aquele)

Contractions with demonstratives (neste, desse, daquele)

Asking which and how many (qual, quanto)

Plurals ending in -ão (-ões, -ãos, -ães)

Plurals ending in consonants (-ns, -is, -es)

The verb to like (gostar de)

The verb to need (precisar de)

The verb to want (querer)

The verb can or may (poder)

Expressing obligation (ter de)

Adverbs of degree (muito, pouco)

Quantifiers (muito, pouco)

Comparatives (mais... do que, menos... do que)

Equality comparisons (tão... como)

The preposition com (comigo, contigo)

Coordinating conjunctions (e, mas, ou, porque)

The preposition por (pelo, pela)

Double negation (nunca, nada, ninguém)

Present continuous (estar a)

Near future (ir)

Past tense of regular -ar verbs

Past tense of regular -er and -ir verbs

Past tense of ser and ir (fui, foi)

Direct object pronouns (me, te, o, a, nos, os, as)

Pronoun placement with negatives and questions

Greetings and courtesy (bom dia, obrigado)

Physical states with ter (ter fome, ter frio)

Asking the way (à direita, sempre em frente)

Colours (vermelho, amarelo, cor-de-rosa)

Money and shopping (custar, a moeda)

Getting around (o motorista, a paragem de autocarro)

Weather and seasons (faz calor, o inverno)

Omitting the subject pronoun

Where things are: ficar (Onde fica...?)

Richer questions: que + noun and é que

Numbers above 100 (cento e vinte, mil)

First-person sound changes (durmo, prefiro)

Advice and ability: dever and saber

Asking why: porquê and porque

When one thing happens: quando-clauses

Here and there: aqui, aí, ali (cá e lá)

Formal and plural possessives: o seu, o vosso

Irregular presents: ver, vir, dar

Present irregulars

Reflexive verbs (me, te, se, nos)

Stem-changing reflexives

Attached object pronouns (-lo, -la, -los, -las)

Nasal attached pronouns (-no, -na, -nos, -nas)

Pronoun placement with adverbs

Past tense of fazer, dizer, and trazer

Past tense of ter, estar, poder, and saber

Past tense of querer and vir

Past tense of ver, dar, and ler

Past tense reflexive verbs (-se)

Time elapsed in the past (há)

Question	Answer
the laboratory	o laboratório
The scientist is working in the laboratory.	O cientista está a trabalhar no laboratório.
It is possible that the laboratory closes early.	É possível que o laboratório feche cedo.
the equipment	o equipamento
The laboratory's equipment is very expensive.	O equipamento do laboratório é muito caro.
since (reason)	já que
Since the laboratory is closed, I do not work today.	Já que o laboratório está fechado, não trabalho hoje.
I prefer to sleep, since there is no equipment.	Prefiro dormir, já que não há equipamento.
the sample	a amostra
We need to take a sample of the water.	Precisamos de tirar uma amostra da água.
Since we have the equipment, we test the sample.	Já que temos o equipamento, testamos a amostra.
to observe	observar
The scientists observe the stars at night.	Os cientistas observam as estrelas à noite.
The samples are observed in the laboratory.	Observam-se as amostras no laboratório.
seeing that	visto que
Seeing that the machine failed, we cannot observe anything.	Visto que a máquina falhou, não podemos observar nada.
I prefer your laboratory, seeing that mine is dirty.	Prefiro o teu laboratório, visto que o meu está sujo.
the reaction	a reação
A strange reaction happened in the glass.	Aconteceu uma reação estranha no copo.
Seeing that the reaction is fast, you can stay here.	Visto que a reação é rápida, podes ficar aqui.
chemical	químico
The chemical reaction is observed on the screen.	Observa-se a reação química no ecrã.
given that	dado que
Given that there is no equipment, how do you do the experiment?	Dado que não há equipamento, como fazes a experiência?
He does not drink this, given that it is a chemical product.	Ele não bebe isto, dado que é um produto químico.
the analysis	a análise
Given that the analysis finished, we can leave.	Dado que a análise terminou, podemos ir embora.
The computer does the chemical analysis of the sample.	O computador faz a análise química da amostra.
the conclusion	a conclusão
What is your conclusion about the analysis?	Qual é a tua conclusão sobre a análise?
It is possible that the conclusion is different, isn't it?	É possível que a conclusão seja diferente, não é?