The conjunctions you learn at A1–B1 — y, pero, porque, cuando, si, aunque — connect clauses inside a sentence. They are syntactic glue: each one combines two clauses into a single complex sentence with a single full stop at the end. Logical connectors (nexos lógicos, also called marcadores del discurso or conectores textuales) work at a different level. They sit between sentences or paragraphs, signposting the logical relation between independent ideas. They are typographically set off with commas, semicolons, or full stops, and they are the markers that turn a sequence of sentences into a coherent argument.
This page is a working reference: groups of connectors organised by logical function, with peninsular usage notes, register grading, and punctuation conventions. It is the connective tissue of any academic essay, opinion column, formal letter, or business report you will ever write in Spanish.
How logical connectors differ from subordinators
A subordinator like porque lives inside a single sentence, binding a subordinate clause to a main clause: No fui porque tenía un examen. The whole thing is one sentence, with no internal full stop.
A logical connector like por lo tanto sits between two independent sentences, signalling that the second follows logically from the first: Tenía un examen al día siguiente. Por lo tanto, no fui a la fiesta. Two sentences, two main verbs, two full stops — joined not by syntax but by discourse logic.
Tenía un examen al día siguiente. Por lo tanto, no fui a la fiesta.
I had an exam the next day. Therefore, I didn't go to the party. (two sentences, connected by logic)
No fui a la fiesta porque tenía un examen al día siguiente.
I didn't go to the party because I had an exam the next day. (one sentence, syntactic subordination)
The same idea can usually be expressed either way. The discourse-level version is more formal, more deliberate, and more characteristic of written argument; the subordinated version is more compact and more conversational.
Addition / accumulation
Connectors that add a second piece of information to the first.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| además | neutral | The default. Use freely. |
| asimismo | formal, written | Essays, reports, journalism. |
| igualmente | neutral, slightly formal | Often pairs with a closing remark. |
| también | neutral | More often inside sentences than between them. |
| encima (de eso) | colloquial, informal | Often with a negative tinge ("and on top of that…"). |
| por añadidura | formal, literary | Old-fashioned but still used in formal essays. |
| a mayor abundamiento | very formal, legal | Found in legal texts and academic writing. |
El piso está en una zona muy tranquila. Además, tiene mucha luz natural.
The flat is in a very quiet area. What's more, it has lots of natural light.
El informe identifica los problemas principales. Asimismo, propone soluciones concretas.
The report identifies the main problems. It also puts forward concrete solutions. (formal)
Llegué tarde al trabajo. Encima, me había dejado el portátil en casa.
I got to work late. On top of that, I'd left my laptop at home. (colloquial)
Contrast / opposition
Connectors that introduce a counterpoint, qualification, or contrast.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| sin embargo | neutral, written-leaning | The standard formal "however". |
| no obstante | formal | Slightly heavier than sin embargo. |
| en cambio | neutral | "On the other hand" — paired contrast. |
| por el contrario | formal | Strong direct opposition. |
| ahora bien | neutral, argumentative | "That said" — used to introduce a qualification. |
| con todo | formal, literary | "Even so", "all the same". |
| aun así | neutral | "Even so" — colloquial-to-formal range. |
| a pesar de todo | neutral | "Despite everything". |
El proyecto era ambicioso. Sin embargo, los plazos resultaron irrealistas desde el principio.
The project was ambitious. However, the deadlines turned out to be unrealistic from the start.
A mi hermana le encanta el frío. En cambio, yo paso el invierno deseando que llegue el verano.
My sister loves the cold. I, on the other hand, spend winter wishing summer would arrive.
El argumento es interesante. Ahora bien, no se sostiene si lo aplicamos a los casos del siglo XX.
The argument is interesting. That said, it doesn't hold up if we apply it to twentieth-century cases.
Cause / explanation
Connectors that explain or specify the previous statement.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| de hecho | neutral | "In fact" — reinforces with evidence. |
| en efecto | formal | "Indeed" — confirms a prior statement. |
| en realidad | neutral | "Actually" — often corrects a misperception. |
| efectivamente | neutral, slightly formal | "Indeed", confirming. |
| es decir | neutral | "That is to say" — paraphrases. |
| esto es | formal | Same job as es decir, more bookish. |
| dicho de otra manera | neutral | "Put another way". |
| a saber | formal, academic | "Namely" — introduces a list. |
El piloto no estaba en condiciones de volar. De hecho, los controles le habían dado positivo dos horas antes.
The pilot wasn't fit to fly. In fact, his tests had come back positive two hours earlier.
El proyecto está parado. Es decir, no se ha aprobado ni el presupuesto ni el calendario.
The project is on hold. That is to say, neither the budget nor the schedule has been approved.
Consequence / result
Connectors that introduce what follows logically from what was said.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| por lo tanto | neutral | The everyday "therefore". |
| por consiguiente | formal | Heavier "therefore", common in essays. |
| en consecuencia | formal | "As a consequence" — journalism, reports. |
| así pues | formal, written | "Thus then" — argumentative. |
de ahí que
| formal | "Hence (the fact that…)" — takes the subjunctive. |
| así que | neutral, conversational | "So" — the colloquial workhorse. |
| de modo que / de manera que | neutral | "So that" — with indicative for result. |
Los datos no son concluyentes. Por consiguiente, hace falta repetir el experimento con una muestra mayor.
The data are not conclusive. Consequently, the experiment needs to be repeated with a larger sample.
No ha llovido en seis meses. De ahí que el embalse esté casi vacío.
It hasn't rained in six months. Hence the reservoir is almost empty.
Mañana es festivo, así que no abrimos.
Tomorrow's a holiday, so we won't be open.
The de ahí que + subjunctive construction is one of the few result connectors that requires the subjunctive — because the result is presented as a presupposed conclusion rather than an asserted fact.
Summary / conclusion
Connectors that wrap up an argument.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| en resumen | neutral | "In short". |
| en suma | formal | "In sum". |
| en definitiva | neutral, common | "At the end of the day" — peninsular favourite. |
| en conclusión | formal | Essay-style closer. |
| finalmente | neutral | "Finally" — last in a list. |
| para terminar | neutral, conversational | "To finish". |
| en última instancia | formal | "Ultimately". |
En definitiva, el plan no es perfecto, pero es lo mejor que podemos ofrecer ahora mismo.
At the end of the day, the plan isn't perfect, but it's the best we can offer right now.
En conclusión, la reforma satisface los criterios técnicos, aunque plantea dudas sobre su aplicación.
In conclusion, the reform meets the technical criteria, although it raises doubts about its implementation. (formal)
Topic shift / new perspective
Connectors that introduce a new angle on the same topic, or shift to a related one.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| por otra parte / por otro lado | neutral | "On the other hand", "for another thing". |
| por un lado…, por otro | neutral | Paired contrast. |
| en cuanto a | neutral, formal-leaning | "As for", "regarding". |
| por lo que respecta a | formal | "With respect to". |
| en lo concerniente a | very formal | "As concerns". |
| a este respecto | formal | "On this matter". |
El presupuesto se ha aprobado. Por otra parte, todavía está pendiente la revisión legal.
The budget has been approved. On a separate note, the legal review is still pending.
En cuanto a la sostenibilidad, el plan no aborda las emisiones del sector transporte.
As for sustainability, the plan does not address transport-sector emissions.
Sequence / time
Connectors that order points in a list or an argument.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| primero, en primer lugar | neutral / formal | "First", "firstly". |
| en segundo lugar, segundo | neutral / formal | "Second", "secondly". |
| después, luego | neutral | "Then", "next". |
| a continuación | neutral, slightly formal | "Next" — common in instructions. |
| por último, finalmente | neutral / formal | "Lastly", "finally". |
| para empezar | neutral, conversational | "To start with". |
En primer lugar, hay que reconocer el esfuerzo del equipo. En segundo lugar, conviene revisar los plazos. Por último, debemos comunicarlo a los clientes.
Firstly, we need to recognise the team's effort. Secondly, we should review the deadlines. Lastly, we must communicate this to the clients.
Illustration
Connectors that introduce an example.
| Connector | Register | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| por ejemplo | neutral | The default. |
| a modo de ejemplo | formal | "By way of example". |
| como muestra | neutral, slightly formal | "As an illustration". |
| pongamos por caso | neutral, conversational | "Let's say", "take the case of". |
| verbigracia (vbg.) | very formal, academic Latin | "To wit"; rare outside academic writing. |
Hay ciudades españolas donde se hablan dos lenguas oficiales. Por ejemplo, en Barcelona conviven el catalán y el castellano.
There are Spanish cities where two official languages are spoken. For example, in Barcelona Catalan and Castilian coexist.
Punctuation: how to set off these connectors
Peninsular Spanish has stable conventions for punctuating logical connectors. Misplacing the commas is the most visible giveaway of a non-native writer.
Sentence-initial connectors take a comma on the right
When a connector opens a sentence, it is followed by a comma:
Sin embargo, no fui a la reunión. Por lo tanto, hemos decidido cancelarla.
Mid-sentence connectors take commas on both sides
When a connector appears in the middle of a sentence (after the verb, between clauses), it sits between commas:
La decisión, sin embargo, no convenció a nadie. Hemos decidido, por lo tanto, posponer el evento.
After a full stop or semicolon
Many connectors mark the transition between two grammatically independent sentences. Whether you use a full stop or a semicolon is a style choice; the semicolon is preferred when the two ideas are tightly bound.
El informe es claro. Sin embargo, plantea problemas de aplicación. El informe es claro; sin embargo, plantea problemas de aplicación.
Avoid the comma-splice trap: in formal Spanish you cannot link two independent sentences with only a comma in front of a connector. ❌El informe es claro, sin embargo plantea problemas is judged a punctuation error.
Register-matching is a writing skill
Peninsular Spanish has rich connector inventories at every register level. A common student mistake is to over-formalise: an undergraduate essay sprinkled with a mayor abundamiento and verbigracia reads as awkward and pretentious. A formal letter that uses encima and así que in every paragraph reads as too casual. Pick connectors that match the surrounding prose.
A loose register guide:
- Conversation, informal letters, social media: así que, además, encima, en cambio, por cierto, en fin.
- Newspaper articles, blogs, business letters: sin embargo, por lo tanto, en cambio, además, asimismo, en definitiva.
- Academic essays, formal reports, legal documents: no obstante, por consiguiente, asimismo, por otra parte, en lo concerniente a, en última instancia.
Common Mistakes
❌ El piso es grande. Tiene mucha luz.
Not wrong, but choppy — better to connect the two sentences explicitly. The English habit of short juxtaposed sentences reads as telegraphic in formal Spanish.
✅ El piso es grande. Además, tiene mucha luz.
The flat is big. What's more, it has lots of light.
❌ Sin embargo no fui a la reunión.
Wrong punctuation — a sentence-initial connector requires a comma after it.
✅ Sin embargo, no fui a la reunión.
However, I didn't go to the meeting.
❌ El informe es claro, sin embargo plantea problemas.
Wrong (comma splice) — you can't join two independent sentences with just a comma plus a connector. Use a full stop or semicolon before 'sin embargo'.
✅ El informe es claro. Sin embargo, plantea problemas.
The report is clear. However, it raises problems.
❌ De ahí que el embalse está casi vacío.
Wrong — 'de ahí que' requires the subjunctive.
✅ De ahí que el embalse esté casi vacío.
Hence the reservoir is almost empty.
❌ Encima, el informe no aborda la sostenibilidad. (in a formal report)
Register mismatch — 'encima' is colloquial and out of place in formal writing. Use 'además' or 'asimismo'.
✅ Asimismo, el informe no aborda la sostenibilidad.
Furthermore, the report does not address sustainability.
Key takeaways
- Logical connectors are discourse-level glue: they sit between independent sentences, not inside a single complex sentence.
- They are organised by function: addition, contrast, cause/explanation, consequence, summary, topic shift, sequence, illustration.
- Each connector is graded for register; pick one that matches the surrounding prose. Over-formalising is as visible as under-formalising.
- Punctuation: comma after a sentence-initial connector; commas around a mid-sentence connector; never a comma splice in front of a connector that joins two independent sentences.
- De ahí que is the rare result connector that takes the subjunctive — most others take the indicative.
- Mastering connectors is what separates B1 prose (short, juxtaposed sentences) from B2+ prose (connected, signposted argument).
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