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World History 1

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Historians have carved out roughly 150 to 750 CE as the period of Late Antiquity and view it as a time of vibrant transformation in the Mediterranean, rather than simply Rome’s decline and fall. The cultural focus on the eastern Mediterranean, the rise of <OpenstaxTerm>Christianity</OpenstaxTerm>, and new forms of Roman governance indicate some ways in which people from this period thought of themselves as being different from what was seen in the ancient world.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Yet the Roman state continued to function, at least in the East, and many still saw themselves as a part of the classical Mediterranean order. The later Roman Empire was in many ways an extension of the earlier period, replicating and repeating similar trends in governance, culture, and even religion. This interplay between continuity with the ancient world and stark differences from it makes Late Antiquity a unique historical period.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the late 400s and early 500s, the culture of the empire was changing profoundly as Christianity grew in influence. The centralization of imperial power was coupled with intense growth of the empire’s bureaucratic system, in which the wealthy classes were able to control government at the expense of the poor. The Roman senatorial class in particular had changed. While in earlier centuries the Senate had played an important administrative role for the entire state, it now acted largely as a type of aristocratic “city council” for the city of Rome itself, making few meaningful decisions beyond city management and with many members choosing not even to attend. Urban growth continued in some places, despite various setbacks due to war on the eastern frontier, while public spaces in some cities fell into disrepair. In contrast, the <OpenstaxTerm>Christian Church</OpenstaxTerm> thrived as a social and economic force in the cities of the eastern Mediterranean, and the construction of monasteries and churches overseen by bishops continued.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Art and architecture produced during this period underwent a similar transformation. Much of the new construction across the empire consisted of the building of churches, many erected with material salvaged from dismantled pagan temples. Churches generally followed the plan of a Roman basilica, with a central nave (aisle) and an apse (small chapel) at one end of the building. Art was also produced in the Christian mode, with icons that depicted holy people or places. Paintings, mosaics, and in later periods stained-glass windows functioned as aids to worship and also as a means of teaching the mostly illiterate people about the Bible stories central to their faith. Mosaics, a hallmark of Roman art, became more elaborate during this period, and artists were able to play with light and color in their designs (<a href="#fig-00001">Figure 10.11</a>). In much the same way, the classical past influenced Late Antique literature as writers continued to produce histories and works in genres that had enjoyed prominence in earlier times. But literature from this period also represented the Christian present because it was dominated by conversations about theology.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/4e789e2f59777d2368701a41a6436d3276615ab8" alt="A picture of a rectangle wall mosaic is shown. Ten people are shown standing in a line. They all wear some type of long, draped clothing. A white water fountain on a carved pedestal stands on the left side of the mosaic. The person farthest left is holding a red and white decorated drape open with his right hand and has short brown hair. He wears a green and brown long covering over a knee length, long sleeved, white shirt and has black tipped white shoes. The person next to him has a long white robe on with a brown square, short brown hair, black tipped white shoes, and accepts a dark, decorated chalice from the woman to his left. The woman wears a long, brown robe with jewels and tassels at the top and scenes stitched along the bottom. Her head is adorned with a jeweled crown and jeweled tassels hanging down on both sides. She wears dark shoes with circles on them. To her left is another woman in a dark, detailed robe and decorated, white shawl with a simple white headdress and red shoes. A woman is to her left in a dark, detailed long dress and large hairdo and earrings. Her left hand is shown wearing a large ring. Five men stand to her left in long detailed robes, red shoes, and short hair. Drapes are shown above their heads. The edges of the mosaic are laid with various shapes and decorations. A rounded window is seen at the left of the picture." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1100" height="733" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1100">
	Figure 10.11 This mid-sixth-century mosaic from the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, depicts the empress Theodora, wife of the emperor Justinian, presenting a chalice as a symbol of her charity. Theodora’s image and the nearby panels depicting her husband emphasized their high status and Christian devotion. (credit: “Mosaic of Empress Theodora, Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna” by Sharon Mollerus/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	These cultural and societal trends were prominent in the reign of Justinian I, who was the Eastern Roman emperor from 527 to 565. A devout Christian, <OpenstaxTerm>Justinian</OpenstaxTerm> expressed his piety by drafting laws that specifically addressed religious matters. He showed a special interest in religious debates and theology, publishing a series of theological discourses during his reign. In addition, he funded the construction of numerous churches in Constantinople. The most impressive was certainly the <OpenstaxTerm>Hagia Sophia</OpenstaxTerm>, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. This church was located next to the imperial residence and hippodrome (a stadium for horse and chariot racing) and was a central point in the city where the emperor could carry out his duties (<a href="#fig-00002">Figure 10.12</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/e322ca9b8dede573c173f5b8a9e6628cf13a908c" alt="A drawing of a very large, multi-tiered building is shown on a cloudy background. The building is comprised of many layers of different shaped structures – some rounded, some square, and some rectangle. All of the parts have windows in varying shapes and sizes and some levels have trees and bushes showing from inside the walls. Four very tall pointy spires are seen at four corners around the building with rounded watch towers toward the top. At the right of the building an arch stands with a tiled roof that leads to a short wall that then leads to the large structure. In the background there are more buildings with rounded domed roofs and spires coming out of the roofs. In the left corner of the drawing there is a small hut and five rectangle items strewn all over the ground. People in long robed clothing are seen walking into various doors of the building. The ground in front of the structure is cobbled and uneven." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1300" height="843" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1300">
	Figure 10.12 Built on the layout of a cross, the Hagia Sophia or Church of Holy Wisdom in Constantinople is massive in size; its main dome is 105 feet in diameter. This lithograph of the exterior was made in 1857; mosaics decorated the rich interior. (credit: modification of work “Lithography of the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 1857” by Dmitry Makeev/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Justinian also focused on maintaining the empire’s connection to its past. Among the legal reforms he instituted to preserve its laws, the <OpenstaxTerm>Code of Justinian</OpenstaxTerm> aimed to compile the laws issued since the early second century. Unlike the Theodosian Code, however, the Code of Justinian regulated imperial edicts by addressing any inconsistencies among them. Though laws were increasingly being issued in Greek by this time, the Code of Justinian also preserved past laws in their original Latin. Thus, while <OpenstaxTerm>Greek</OpenstaxTerm> was the dominant language spoken in the empire, <OpenstaxTerm>Latin</OpenstaxTerm> continued as the language of legislation and formed part of upper-class education. It also functioned as a means to link the empire to its past. Though the language slowly fell out of use, fluency in Latin was still a status symbol among the wealthy, educated class. In addition to his compilation of edicts, Justinian carried out other legal projects that brought together the written opinions of jurists, legal professionals in the Roman Empire.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Justinian’s ambitions also extended to reconquering the West. Though by this time the <OpenstaxTerm>Byzantine Empire</OpenstaxTerm> was focused on the eastern Mediterranean, regaining <OpenstaxTerm>Italy</OpenstaxTerm>, the earlier seat of the empire, held strong appeal. Following the successful capture of <OpenstaxTerm>Carthage</OpenstaxTerm> in Vandal-controlled North Africa, the emperor planned to invade Italy, by that time controlled by the <OpenstaxTerm>Ostrogoths</OpenstaxTerm>. He sent his trusted general <OpenstaxTerm>Belisarius</OpenstaxTerm> to Italy, and despite having a relatively small force, Belisarius occupied Rome in 536. He made headway in recapturing the cities of Italy, including Milan and Ravenna, and he continued his campaign until 540 when he was recalled to the east to command the troops against the Persians. Justinian completed the conquest of Italy in the 550s, also making inroads against the Visigoths in southern Spain (<a href="#fig-00003">Figure 10.13</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00003" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/1dd9c46afce7d7e6d2a713d2ba10e081a9999529" alt="A drawing of a map of the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea is shown. To the west the Atlantic Ocean is shown as well as the Strait of Gibraltar between Spain and Africa. The Tyrrhenian Sea is labeled by Italy, the Aegean Sea is labeled by Greece, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov are labeled by Turkey and the Ukraine. A southern slice of Spain as well as a thin slice of northern Africa along the coast are highlighted green. Also highlighted green are Italy, Sardinia, Corsica, the western portion of Slovenia, the coastal land along Croatia, and the coastal area of Montenegro. Cities labeled on the map from west to east are: Carthehena in Spain, Ravenna, Rome, Naples, Sardinia, and Syracuse in Italy, Carthage in Africa, Thessalonica and Corinth in Greece, Constantinople in Turkey, Alexandria in Egypt, Cherson in the Ukraine, Antioch in Syria, and Jerusalem in Israel." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1301" height="603" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1301">
	Figure 10.13 Justinian’s plan to reconquer the western empire (the areas in green) proved effective with a relatively small force, but it ultimately strained his realm, which had to deal with growing problems with the Persians in the East. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> In Their Own Words </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Procopius and the Portrayal of Theodora </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		<OpenstaxTerm>Procopius</OpenstaxTerm> was a prominent scholar in the sixth-century Byzantine Empire whose writings are our key source for many events of the time. He published works such as <OpenstaxEm>The Wars</OpenstaxEm> and <OpenstaxEm>The Buildings</OpenstaxEm> that praised Justinian, but his scandalous work the <OpenstaxEm>Anecdota</OpenstaxEm> (“Secret History”) claims to expose Justinian and <OpenstaxTerm>Theodora</OpenstaxTerm> as conniving, deceitful rulers. Likely unpublished during the author’s lifetime because of its shocking content, <OpenstaxEm>Anecdota</OpenstaxEm> describes the pair as victims of demonic possession, and Theodora as a woman of humble but disgraceful background who used dishonest (and inappropriate) means to become empress. The content is clearly embellished, but its critical viewpoint allows readers to understand how the author may have become disillusioned with Justinian’s reign.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxBlockquote>
		 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			But as soon as she [Theodore] came of age and was at last mature, she joined the women of the stage and straightway became a courtesan, of the sort whom men of ancient times used to call ‘infantry.’ For she was neither a flute-player nor a harpist, nay, she had not even acquired skill in the dance, but she sold her youthful beauty to those who chanced to come along, plying her trade with practically her whole body . . . . And as she wantoned with her lovers, she always kept bantering them, and by toying with new devices in intercourse, she always succeeded in winning the hearts of the licentious to her; for she did not even expect that the approach should be made by the man she was with, but on the contrary she herself, with wanton jests and with clownish posturing with her hips, would tempt all who came along, especially if they were beardless youths. . . .
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			Then at length Justinian set about arranging a betrothal with Theodora. But since it was impossible for a man who had attained to senatorial rank to contract marriage with a courtesan, a thing forbidden from the beginning by the most ancient laws, he compelled the Emperor [Justinian’s uncle the emperor Justin I] to amend the laws by a new law, and from then on he lived with Theodora as his married wife, and he thereby opened the way to betrothal with courtesans for all other men; and as a tyrant he straightway assumed the imperial office, concealing by a fictitious pretext the violence of the act.
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			—Procopius, <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>Anecdota</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>, translated by H.B. Dewing
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
	</OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxUl>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			How does Procopius depict Theodora’s past as scandalous?
		</OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			How does this depiction implicate Justinian as an unfit ruler?
		</OpenstaxLi>
	</OpenstaxUl>
</OpenstaxNote>

10.2.1 Late Antique Rome

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life after College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Early Humans

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

2.1.1 Human Evolution

2.1.2 Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

2.1.3 Early Human Technologies

2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.1 Ice, Ice, and More Ice

2.2.2 Life in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.3 Diverse Paleolithic Peoples

2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

2.3.1 The Development of Agriculture

2.3.2 How Farming Changed the Human Experience

2.3.3 Neolithic Peoples

3 Early Civilizations and Urban Societies

3.1 Early Civilizations

3.1.1 Attributes of Early Civilizations

3.1.2 The First Urban Societies

3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia

3.2.1 The Rise and Eclipse of Sumer

3.2.2 The Rise of the World’s First Empire

3.2.3 Later Empires in Mesopotamia

3.2.4 Society and Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

3.3 Ancient Egypt

3.3.1 The Origins of Ancient Egypt

3.3.2 The Age of Pyramid Building

3.3.3 A Second Age of Egyptian Greatness

3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 The Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.2 Trade, Writing, and Religion

3.4.3 The Era of Decline

4 The Near East

4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes

4.1.1 Power Politics in the Near East

4.1.2 Foreign Affairs and Trade

4.1.3 Daily Life and the Family in the Near East

4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom

4.2.1 The Hyksos in Egypt

4.2.2 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom

4.2.3 Egypt’s Foreign Policy

4.3 The Persian Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of Persia

4.3.2 Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

4.3.3 Persian Culture and Daily Life

4.4 The Hebrews

4.4.1 The History of the Hebrews

4.4.2 The Culture of the Hebrews

5 Asia in Ancient Times

5.1 Ancient China

5.1.1 Prehistoric China

5.1.2 Early Dynastic China

5.1.3 The Zhou Dynasty

5.1.4 The Warring States Era and Qin Unification

5.2 The Steppes

5.2.1 The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes

5.2.2 Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors

5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

5.3.1 Ancient Korea

5.3.2 Ancient Japan

5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire

5.4.1 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

5.4.2 The Aryans and Brahmanism

5.4.3 Buddhism

5.4.4 The Mauryan Empire

5.4.5 The Gupta Dynasty

6 Mediterranean Peoples

6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples

6.1.1 The Late Bronze Age World

6.1.2 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans

6.2 Ancient Greece

6.2.1 Archaic Greece

6.2.2 Sparta and Athens

6.2.3 Classical Greece

6.3 The Hellenistic Era

6.3.1 The Kingdom of Macedon

6.3.2 Hellenistic Culture

6.4 The Roman Republic

6.4.1 The Foundation and Function of the Roman Republic

6.4.2 The Expansion of the Roman Republic

6.5 The Age of Augustus

6.5.1 The First Triumvirate

6.5.2 From Republic to Principate

7 Experiencing the Roman Empire

7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family

7.1.1 The Structure of Roman Families

7.1.2 A Day in the Life of a Roman Family

7.1.3 What Family Meant in Rome