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Anthropology

<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/ef84bb7a7cb04a21daf7bca377fee2e2ac18f3a8" alt="Diagram consisting of the following elements: 1) Two interior, overlapping circles, each labelled “Individual” and containing the text “personal biases/implicit and learned”; 2) The space where the two “Individual” circles overlap, labeled “Interpersonal” and containing the text “Power imbalances between people that reify social inequalities”; 3) An oval partially overlapping the Individual circles labelled “Institutional” and containing the text “Oppressive policies and practices”; 4) A circle encompassing all other elements and labelled with the text “Structural: Global, societal, historical levels of oppression”; 5) A label above the large circle reading “Systemic Inequalities: Systemic “isms” - the connection between all levels of inequality.”" mediaType="image/png" width="1708" height="1241" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1708">
	<strong>Figure 9.2</strong> This graphic depicts various levels of social inequalities. Social inequalities are often seen as separate phenomena, but they are frequently interconnected, existing in many different interactions between people and institutions. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Although it is important to understand the ways in which societies control resource accumulation, it is also important to study the phenomena and experiences of inequality in one’s own culture. This section will examine how individuals experience different levels of social inequalities. In contemporary societies, experiences of social inequalities often have roots in systems of capitalism, colonialism, racism, and sexism, which all include a perceived superiority of one group over another.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Interpersonal inequalities</OpenstaxTerm>, which are power imbalances that are rooted in personal biases, occur every day, reifying and naturalizing inequalities that exist at institutional and systemic levels. <OpenstaxTerm>Institutional inequalities</OpenstaxTerm> stem from the policies and practices of organizations (educational institutions, government, companies) that perpetuate oppression. Institutional inequalities exist outside of the day-to-day interactions that people experience, are often unseen, and feel like the status quo. <OpenstaxTerm>Structural inequalities</OpenstaxTerm> exist at a level above personal interactions and institutions because they are based on the accumulated effects of institutional decisions across society and history. This type of inequality is pervasive, global, and especially difficult to disrupt. Structural inequalities can reaffirm individual biases, creating a self-reinforcing cycle. Finally, <OpenstaxTerm>systemic inequalities</OpenstaxTerm> are the confluence of interpersonal, institutional, and structural inequalities; these are often portrayed by “isms” such as racism, classism, and sexism.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Inequality</OpenstaxTerm> refers to the unequal distribution of resources. Most people learn about inequality at a young age when they are exposed to people from different socioeconomic classes in places such as schools, places of worship, or social organizations. They recognize that some people have more resources at their disposal, whether through inborn talents or social connections. Such people may wear more expensive clothing, drive more expensive cars, and even have more opportunities than others. Social inequalities are based on individual people’s backgrounds and how their opportunities in life have been affected by racism, sexism, classism, and other forms of <OpenstaxTerm>oppression</OpenstaxTerm>. In this context, oppression is defined as unjust exercises of power that may be overt or covert and are often used to control or inflict harm on entire groups of people. <OpenstaxTerm>Inequity</OpenstaxTerm>, on the other hand, refers to the unequal distribution of resources due to an unjust power imbalance. It is a type of inequality caused by this unequal distribution, often as a result of injustices against historically excluded groups of people. In the United States, inequity is seen today in areas such as the banking industry, access to voting, and the housing market, where minority groups continue to face challenges related to fairness and equitable distribution of resources. Social inequalities lead to inequity when the groups in charge of distribution allocate resources in ways that further oppress marginalized groups.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/874a19dbfe196560b1c482a65add5d4bdae21f8e" alt="Three panels of text and images. 1) Panel one is labelled “Equality” and shows three children of varying height standing on benches of equal height behind a solid wooden fence. The tallest and second tallest child can easily see over the fence, but the shortest child cannot. 2) In panel two, labelled “Equity”, each child can see over the fence. The tallest child stands on the ground, the second tallest on a stool, and the shortest on a small ladder. 3) In panel three, labelled “Justice”, all three children stand in front of a chain link fence through which each can see without changing their elevation." mediaType="image/png" width="1801" height="1032" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1801">
	<strong>Figure 9.3</strong> This visual representation shows the difference between equality, or providing the same resources to everyone even when needs differ, and equity, or providing resources according to people’s needs. In a truly just society (the third panel), all individuals can be treated equally with no additional accommodations. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	You may have seen images on social media trying to explain the difference between inequality and inequity—or, on the flip side, equality and equity. One problem with such images, as Sarah Willen, Colleen Walsh, and Abigail Fisher Williamson (2021) point out, is that because they depict individuals, audiences may interpret these images as calling for localized or individual solutions rather than systemic changes. Oppression and inequity most often are not interpersonal but exist on a structural level of economics, politics, and socialization that normalizes their presence.
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	In order to understand the differences between inequality and inequity, systematic oppression and systemic oppression, it is important to know that the word <OpenstaxEm><OpenstaxTerm>system</OpenstaxTerm></OpenstaxEm> has two different definitions. A system can refer to a formula for methodically attaining a goal, such as a system someone creates to study vocabulary before a foreign language exam. The term <OpenstaxTerm>systematic oppression</OpenstaxTerm> derives from this meaning; it is the intentional mistreatment of certain groups. On the other hand, the term <OpenstaxEm><OpenstaxTerm>system</OpenstaxTerm></OpenstaxEm> can also mean a combination of parts to form a complex whole, such as the organs in an organism. This definition is the root of the term <OpenstaxTerm>systemic oppression</OpenstaxTerm>, which describes how political, economic, and social inequalities are normalized and perpetuated. Many scholars have determined that systemic oppression is permanently ingrained in US laws, government, and society, with the result that it is both unseen and subconsciously upheld daily.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	When discussing inequality and inequity, it is also important to understand <OpenstaxTerm>power</OpenstaxTerm>, which, in its simplest sense, is the ability to exert control, authority, or influence over others. Individuals with more power have more <OpenstaxTerm>agency</OpenstaxTerm>, or capability to act and make decisions. Agency should not be confused with free will because an individual’s agency is often heavily shaped by social characteristics such as race, gender, and class. Along with social inequalities, this chapter will discuss power, agency, and how the two are conceptualized by anthropologists through various perspectives and theoretical frameworks.
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9.1.2 Levels of Inequality

1 What Is Anthropology?

1.1 The Study of Humanity, or "Anthropology Is Vast"

1.1.1 The Heart of Anthropology: Central Narrative and Commitments

1.1.2 Central Commitment #1: Exploring Sociocultural Diversity

1.1.3 Central Commitment #2: Understanding How Societies Hold Together

1.1.4 Central Commitment #3: Examining the Interdependence of Humans and Nature

1.2 The Four-Field Approach: Four Approaches within the Guiding Narrative

1.2.1 Biological Anthropology

1.2.2 Archaeology

1.2.3 Cultural Anthropology

1.2.4 Linguistic Anthropology

1.2.5 How the Four Fields Work Together: The Example of Race

1.3 Overcoming Ethnocentrism

1.3.1 Enculturation and Ethnocentrism

1.3.2 Primitivism and Orientalism

1.4 Western Bias in Our Assumptions about Humanity

1.4.1 Primitivism and Orientalism in Popular Culture

1.4.2 The Bias of Backwardness

1.5 Holism, Anthropology’s Distinctive Approach

1.5.1 Society as an Integrated Whole

1.5.2 Sources of Contradiction, Conflict, and Change

1.6 Cross-Cultural Comparison and Cultural Relativism

1.6.1 Relativism Is Not “Anything Goes”

1.6.2 Morality, Activism, and Cultural Relativism

1.7 Reaching for an Insider’s Point of View

1.7.1 The Challenge of Representing Others

1.7.2 Collaborative Methods of Representation

1.7.3 Working across Cultures toward Common Goals

1.7.4 Suggested Readings

2 Methods: Cultural and Archaeological

2.1 Archaeological Research Methods

2.1.1 Archaeological Techniques

2.1.2 Archaeological Dating Methods

2.2 Conservation and Naturalism

2.2.1 Early Efforts

2.2.2 Salvage Anthropology

2.2.3 Museum Collections

2.2.4 Interpretation and Voice

2.3 Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.1 The Development of Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.2 Perspective and Interpretation in Ethnography

2.4 Participant Observation and Interviewing

2.4.1 Participant Observation

2.4.2 Interviewing Informants

2.4.3 Ethical Considerations

2.5 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis

2.5.1 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Information

2.5.2 Modeling

2.5.3 The Science of Anthropology

2.6 Collections

2.6.1 Archives

2.6.2 Three-Dimensional Collections

2.6.3 Ownership

2.6.4 Suggested Readings

3 Culture Concept Theory: Theories of Cultural Change

3.1 The Homeyness of Culture

3.2 The Winkiness of Culture

3.3 The Elements of Culture

3.3.1 Culture Is What We Make

3.3.2 Culture Is What We Do

3.3.3 Culture Is What We Think

3.4 The Aggregates of Culture

3.4.1 Symbols

3.4.2 Ritual

3.4.3 Social Structure

3.5 Modes of Cultural Analysis

3.5.1 Evolution, Adaptation, and Historical Particularism

3.5.2 Functionalism

3.5.3 Structuralism

3.5.4 Ontology

3.6 The Paradoxes of Culture

3.6.1 Paradox 1: Culture Is Continuous, but It Changes

3.6.2 Paradox 2: Culture Is Bounded but Mobile

3.6.3 Paradox 3: Culture Is Consensual but Contested

3.6.4 Paradox 4: Culture Is Shared, but It Varies

3.6.5 Suggested Readings

4 Biological Evolution and Early Human Evidence

4.1 What Is Biological Anthropology?

4.1.1 Looking to the Deep Past

4.1.2 Exploring What It Means to Be Human

4.2 What’s in a Name? The Science of Taxonomy

4.2.1 Defining the Science of Taxonomy

4.2.2 Defining a Species

4.3 It’s All in the Genes! The Foundation of Evolution

4.3.1 The Units of Life

4.3.2 Gregor Mendel and the Laws of Heredity

4.3.3 Mendelian Inheritance in Humans

4.4 Evolution in Action: Past and Present

4.4.1 Early Evolutionists and the Fixity of Species

4.4.2 Charles Darwin’s Role in Changing Views of the Natural World

4.4.3 Understanding Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

4.5 What Is a Primate?

4.5.1 What Is a Primate?

4.5.2 Primate Behavioral Variation

4.5.3 Explaining Primate Success

4.5.4 Primate Classification and Taxonomy

4.6 Origin of and Classification of Primates

4.6.1 Understanding Concepts of Time

4.6.2 Fossils and Dating Methods

Question	Answer
the capability to act and make decisions.	agency
the unequal distribution of resources.	inequality
the unequal distribution of resources due to an unjust power imbalance.	inequity
power imbalances that stem from the policies and practices of organizations (education, government, companies, etc.) that perpetuate oppression.	institutional inequalities
power imbalances that are rooted in personal biases and occur every day, reifying and naturalizing inequalities that exist at institutional and systemic levels.	interpersonal inequalities
the unjust exercise of power, either overt or covert, that is often used to control or inflict harm on entire groups of people.	oppression
the ability to exert control, authority, or influence over others.	power
power imbalances that exist at a level above personal interactions and institutions and are based on the accumulated effects of institutional decisions across society and history.	structural inequalities
the intentional mistreatment of certain groups.	systematic oppression
power imbalances created by the confluence of interpersonal, institutional, and structural inequalities.	systemic inequalities
the ways in which political, economic, and social inequalities are normalized and perpetuated.	systemic oppression