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World History 2

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the end of this section, you will be able to:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Discuss the role of Simón <OpenstaxTerm>Bolívar</OpenstaxTerm> in the South American revolutions
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Discuss the role of José de <OpenstaxTerm>San Martín</OpenstaxTerm> in the South American revolutions
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Describe the consequences of <OpenstaxTerm>South American liberation</OpenstaxTerm>
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	From <OpenstaxTerm>revolution</OpenstaxTerm>ary <OpenstaxTerm>Mexico</OpenstaxTerm> in the northern hemisphere, rebellion rippled south. Spanish American nationalists in Mexico had gained momentum for their cause when they united against the <OpenstaxEm>peninsulares</OpenstaxEm>. The southern parts of the Spanish American empire underwent a similar experience because the patriot creole group also coveted the potential benefits of independence: free trade, control over tax revenue, and local governance. There were two initial focuses: one in northern South America led by Simón Bolívar from Caracas, and another in the far south of the continent led by José de San Martín from Buenos Aires. Under the leadership of Bolívar and San Martín—the <OpenstaxEm>libertadores</OpenstaxEm> (liberators)—military operations began that aimed at controlling the royalist stronghold in Peru to achieve and spread independence throughout South America (<a href="#fig-00001">Figure 8.15</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/db83e91aca55146a3cba6cdad1a3e4989c30c56a" alt="This is a three-part map. All three parts show North and South America, with a smaller inset that shows western Europe. The first map is labeled 1808. Most of South America and about half of North America is labeled government controlled by Fernando VII under traditional Spanish law. Part of western Europe is labeled Region loyal to Supreme Central Junta or Cortes. The second map is labeled 1812. The half of North America and most of the previously labeled part of South America is now labeled Region loyal to Supreme Central Junta or Cortes. The southern part of South America is labeled Junta or insurrection movement in the Americas. Some of northwest South America is labeled Independent state declared or established. Part of western Europe is now labeled Height of French control of the Iberian Peninsula. The third map is labeled 1825. All of the previously highlighted territory except islands in the Atlantic Ocean is now labeled Independent state declared or established. Two islands and part of western Europe are labeled Government controlled by Fernando VII under traditional Spanish law." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1301" height="801" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1301">
	<strong>Figure 8.15</strong> Between 1808 and 1825, the countries of what are now Central and South America transformed from colonies governed by the king of Spain to countries governed by juntas and finally to independent nations. (credit: modification of work “Spanish Americas revolutions” by Resvoluci/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>

8.3 Spanish South America

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life After College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Exchange in East Asia and the Indian Ocean

2.1 India and International Connections

2.1.1 The Mughal Empire

2.1.2 The Sultanate of Gujarat

2.1.3 The Rise of the Maratha Empire

2.1.4 European Colonialism

2.2 The Malacca Sultanate

2.2.1 The Rise of the Malacca Sultanate

2.2.2 European Malacca

2.3 Exchange in East Asia

2.3.1 Japan

2.3.2 China’s Dynastic Exchanges

2.3.3 Korea and Its Neighbors

3 Early Modern Africa and the Wider World

3.1 The Roots of African Trade

3.1.1 Saharan Trade Routes

3.1.2 The Spread of Islam

3.1.3 The Mali Empire

3.2 The Songhai Empire

3.2.1 The Rise of Imperial Songhai

3.2.2 The Reign of Askia the Great

3.2.3 The Decline of Songhai

3.3 The Swahili Coast

3.3.1 The Rise of the Swahili City-States

3.3.2 Slavery on the Swahili Coast

3.3.3 The Contest for the Swahili Coast

3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

3.4.1 The Role of Kanem-Bornu

3.4.2 The Arrival of Europeans

3.4.3 The Later Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

4 The Islamic World

4.1 A Connected Islamic World

4.1.1 Politics and Religion in the Ummah

4.1.2 Islamic Trade Networks

4.1.3 Technology in the Islamic World

4.2 The Ottoman Empire

4.2.1 Culture and Society

4.2.2 Expansion, Revolutions, and Reform

4.2.3 Science and Technology

4.3 The Safavid Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of the Safavid Empire

4.3.2 Establishing Shi‘ism as the State Religion

4.3.3 Safavid Government and Culture

5 Foundations of the Atlantic World

5.1 The Protestant Reformation

5.1.1 The Origins of the Protestant Reformation

5.1.2 Calvinists, Anabaptists, and Anglicans

5.1.3 The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion

5.2 Crossing the Atlantic

5.2.1 The Rise of Maritime Nations

5.2.2 The Columbian Exchange

5.3 The Mercantilist Economy

5.3.1 The Rise of Mercantilism

5.3.2 Mercantilism and the Expansion of Empire

5.3.3 Mercantilism and Its Critics

5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade

5.4.1 Slavery and the Triangular Trade

5.4.2 African and North American Slavery

5.4.3 The Economics of Slavery

6 Colonization and Economic Expansion

6.1 European Colonization in the Americas

6.1.1 Spain’s Encomienda System

6.1.2 English Settlements in North America

6.1.3 French and Dutch Settlements

6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy

6.2.1 The Seven Years’ War

6.2.2 British Influence in India

6.2.3 China’s Dominance in Trade

6.2.4 Colonial Resistance and Revolution

6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

6.3.1 From Mercantilism to Capitalism

6.3.2 Mechanization

6.3.3 Marxism

7 Revolutions in Europe and North America

7.1 The Enlightenment

7.1.1 The Authority of Reason

7.1.2 Natural Rights

7.1.3 Social Contract Theory

7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere

7.2.1 Public Debate and Dissent

7.2.2 The Republic of Letters

7.2.3 Academies, Universities, and Intellectuals

7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti

7.3.1 The American Revolution

7.3.2 The French Revolution

7.3.3 The Haitian Revolution