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World History 2

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In 1820, Spanish liberals succeeded in forcing <OpenstaxTerm>Fernando VII</OpenstaxTerm> to reinstate the liberal <OpenstaxTerm>Cádiz Constitution</OpenstaxTerm> of 1812. In <OpenstaxTerm>New Spain</OpenstaxTerm>, liberal <OpenstaxTerm>creoles</OpenstaxTerm> welcomed the implementation of this constitution because it reopened possibilities for their participation in government. However, the conservative creole elite could not accept the measures attacking the privileges of the Catholic Church and the military, in which many of them held positions. The Spanish king again proved his inefficiency in controlling the Spanish colonies, laying the ground for a second independence movement. This one was led by creoles with the goal of improving their status and power. Rather than making colonial society egalitarian, which had been the goal of Hidalgo and Morelos, the creole elite simply wanted to rule Mexico for themselves.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The creole elite—major landowners, military officers, and church officials—decided to declare independence from Spain and forged a very pragmatic partnership with the <OpenstaxEm>mestizo</OpenstaxEm> and Indigenous followers of Vicente <OpenstaxTerm>Guerrero</OpenstaxTerm>. The winning strategy was to be nationalism in the form of an intense pride in Mexican (as opposed to Spanish) identity, an identity defined by birthplace that creoles shared with Indigenous and mixed-blood people as well as the children of enslaved Africans. This mostly anti-Spanish nationalism allowed creoles to fight for independence but keep the social hierarchy more or less intact.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Agustín de <OpenstaxTerm>Iturbide</OpenstaxTerm>, a royalist creole officer who had distinguished himself in the campaigns against Hidalgo and Morelos, offered such a strategy. He formed an agreement with Guerrero, the man whose revolutionary movement it had been his duty to crush. Iturbide had the military force needed to win independence, while Guerrero had the support of Indigenous and mixed-race Mexicans, the majority of the population. Both shared the goal of independence from Spain.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	On February 24, 1821, Iturbide announced the <OpenstaxTerm>Plan de Iguala</OpenstaxTerm>. This plan combined both conservative and radical views and was based on principles known as the Three Guarantees: independence, religion, and equality. Mexico was to be independent of Spain. Roman <OpenstaxTerm>Catholic</OpenstaxTerm>ism was the official religion. Social equality and protection were to be provided for all residents of Mexico—whether born in the Americas or in Spain. The plan also called for a new imperial Mexican Crown, to be offered to a willing European royal, and the establishment of a regency during the waiting period before the new royal leader was named. To uphold the movement’s grounding principles, a new Army of the Three Guarantees (<OpenstaxEm>Ejército de las tres garantías</OpenstaxEm>) was formed under Iturbide’s command.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		You can view <a href="https://openstax.org/l/77PlandeIguala">the full text of the Plan de Iguala</a> at the Library of Congress.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	On September 27, 1821, a date marking the three-hundredth anniversary of the fall of the Aztec Empire and the end of an eleven-year rebellious period, Iturbide made a triumphant entrance into <OpenstaxTerm>Mexico City</OpenstaxTerm> (<a href="#fig-00005">Figure 8.14</a>). With the support of the conservative creole elite and two powerful liberal insurgent leaders, Vicente <OpenstaxTerm>Guerrero</OpenstaxTerm> and Guadalupe <OpenstaxTerm>Victoria</OpenstaxTerm>, he proclaimed Mexican independence. Mexico became a constitutional monarchy, which, according to the <OpenstaxTerm>Plan de Iguala</OpenstaxTerm>, protected the interests of both Spanish-born <OpenstaxEm>peninsulares</OpenstaxEm> and the church. At the town of Córdoba, Iturbide and the Spanish representative Viceroy Juan de O’Donojú y O’Ryan signed a treaty accepting the terms of the Plan de Iguala, with one adjustment. According to a new clause, in the absence of a European monarch, a local emperor could be chosen. Under this arrangement, eight months later in 1822, the newly elected congress confirmed Iturbide as <OpenstaxTerm>Agustín I</OpenstaxTerm>, constitutional emperor of Mexico.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00005" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/3d707d729ac7c558aae245464c8b97ceeaea2eb5" alt="In this painting, Augustin de Iturbide, rides a horse down a city street. He is followed by soldiers on horseback. Civilians line the road and crowd the second story of nearby buildings." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1300" height="846" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1300">
	<strong>Figure 8.14</strong> In 1821, Agustín de Iturbide entered Mexico City as the victorious leader of the Army of the Three Guarantees. This unknown artist’s imagining of the event shows him being greeted by a largely creole crowd. (credit: “Agustin de Iturbide entrance to Mexico City on 27 September 1821” by Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones de México/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	However, <OpenstaxTerm>Iturbide</OpenstaxTerm>’s reign was brief. His monarchy did not have popular support, and the royal requirements clashed with the fiscal realities of the new nation. In 1822, Iturbide dissolved the congress, a move that sparked uprisings on many fronts. In 1823, he abdicated in response to growing opposition and left for exile in England. Mexico became a republic, and a new constitution was drafted.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Constitution of 1824 marked a compromise between liberal and conservative interests, with liberals favoring social reforms such as those championed by <OpenstaxTerm>Hidalgo</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>Morelos</OpenstaxTerm>, and conservatives concerned with protecting the status of elites and the church. Social equality was written into the constitution, with the exception of special judicial privileges given to the military and the clergy. The power to pass laws and to tax was given to the government of the Mexican states. Following the adoption of the new constitution, the liberal general Guadalupe Victoria became Mexico’s first president. When Iturbide changed his mind and decided to return from exile, he was captured as soon as he arrived at the port and was shot by the new republican troops. The sharp division between liberals and conservatives dominated Mexican political life for the rest of the nineteenth century.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

8.2.2 Iturbide and the Plan de Iguala

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life After College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Exchange in East Asia and the Indian Ocean

2.1 India and International Connections

2.1.1 The Mughal Empire

2.1.2 The Sultanate of Gujarat

2.1.3 The Rise of the Maratha Empire

2.1.4 European Colonialism

2.2 The Malacca Sultanate

2.2.1 The Rise of the Malacca Sultanate

2.2.2 European Malacca

2.3 Exchange in East Asia

2.3.1 Japan

2.3.2 China’s Dynastic Exchanges

2.3.3 Korea and Its Neighbors

3 Early Modern Africa and the Wider World

3.1 The Roots of African Trade

3.1.1 Saharan Trade Routes

3.1.2 The Spread of Islam

3.1.3 The Mali Empire

3.2 The Songhai Empire

3.2.1 The Rise of Imperial Songhai

3.2.2 The Reign of Askia the Great

3.2.3 The Decline of Songhai

3.3 The Swahili Coast

3.3.1 The Rise of the Swahili City-States

3.3.2 Slavery on the Swahili Coast

3.3.3 The Contest for the Swahili Coast

3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

3.4.1 The Role of Kanem-Bornu

3.4.2 The Arrival of Europeans

3.4.3 The Later Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

4 The Islamic World

4.1 A Connected Islamic World

4.1.1 Politics and Religion in the Ummah

4.1.2 Islamic Trade Networks

4.1.3 Technology in the Islamic World

4.2 The Ottoman Empire

4.2.1 Culture and Society

4.2.2 Expansion, Revolutions, and Reform

4.2.3 Science and Technology

4.3 The Safavid Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of the Safavid Empire

4.3.2 Establishing Shi‘ism as the State Religion

4.3.3 Safavid Government and Culture

5 Foundations of the Atlantic World

5.1 The Protestant Reformation

5.1.1 The Origins of the Protestant Reformation

5.1.2 Calvinists, Anabaptists, and Anglicans

5.1.3 The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion

5.2 Crossing the Atlantic

5.2.1 The Rise of Maritime Nations

5.2.2 The Columbian Exchange

5.3 The Mercantilist Economy

5.3.1 The Rise of Mercantilism

5.3.2 Mercantilism and the Expansion of Empire

5.3.3 Mercantilism and Its Critics

5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade

5.4.1 Slavery and the Triangular Trade

5.4.2 African and North American Slavery

5.4.3 The Economics of Slavery

6 Colonization and Economic Expansion

6.1 European Colonization in the Americas

6.1.1 Spain’s Encomienda System

6.1.2 English Settlements in North America

6.1.3 French and Dutch Settlements

6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy

6.2.1 The Seven Years’ War

6.2.2 British Influence in India

6.2.3 China’s Dominance in Trade

6.2.4 Colonial Resistance and Revolution

6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

6.3.1 From Mercantilism to Capitalism

6.3.2 Mechanization

6.3.3 Marxism

7 Revolutions in Europe and North America

7.1 The Enlightenment

7.1.1 The Authority of Reason

7.1.2 Natural Rights

7.1.3 Social Contract Theory

7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere

7.2.1 Public Debate and Dissent

7.2.2 The Republic of Letters

7.2.3 Academies, Universities, and Intellectuals

7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti

7.3.1 The American Revolution

7.3.2 The French Revolution

7.3.3 The Haitian Revolution