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World History 2

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	When <OpenstaxTerm>Napoléon</OpenstaxTerm> occupied <OpenstaxTerm>Spain</OpenstaxTerm> in 1807 and made its ruling royalty captive, he inadvertently sparked a crisis in Spain’s American empire. As insurgents in Spain established regional governing and deliberative councils called <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> to deal with the crisis, so too did creole elites. In key economic and political centers such as <OpenstaxTerm>Mexico City</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>Caracas</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>Buenos Aires</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>Santiago</OpenstaxTerm>, and <OpenstaxTerm>Bogotá</OpenstaxTerm>, the Spanish authorities surrendered control to these local <OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm>. For the first time in Spanish America, local government bodies enjoyed self-rule, and each of the <OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm> considered how it might turn this dramatic turn of events to its own advantage. That is, the solution to the political crisis in Spain breathed new life into a desire for independence throughout the main four colonial divisions.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The idea of self-rule animated both those who were waiting for the Spanish king to return—the royalists—and those who craved total independence—the patriots. The royalists justified their actions by following the example of the Spanish regional <OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm>, but for the patriots, the formation of <OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm> turned the idea of complete independence into a viable goal. They organized popular demonstrations and called the loyalty of royal officials into question. From this point on, the conflict between patriots and royalists grew quickly.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In Spain, the central revolutionary <OpenstaxEm>junta</OpenstaxEm> yielded its power to a national parliament, the Cortes, which met in the city of Cádiz. In 1812, the <OpenstaxTerm>Cádiz Cortes</OpenstaxTerm> approved a liberal charter known as the <OpenstaxTerm>Cádiz Constitution</OpenstaxTerm> or the Constitution of 1812, which provided for limited monarchy, promised freedom of speech and assembly, and abolished the Inquisition (<a href="#fig-00006">Figure 8.9</a>). The writing of the document also provoked heated debates about Spanish American autonomy. It gave the franchise to American Indian and <OpenstaxEm>mestizo</OpenstaxEm> men but excluded men of African ancestry from the political process. In terms of political rights, the document legally grouped all Spanish Americans of African ancestry with felons, debtors, and domestic servants, as people denied the right to govern themselves. Such categorization reinforced the link between African ancestry and slavery.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00006" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/638ac62cb2b8351f321749ee53c716b14600be95" alt="A tall tower, inscribed with “1812,” stands at the center of the monument. Several stone statues of people on foot and on horseback appear nearby." mediaType="image/jpg" width="900" height="768" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="900">
	<strong>Figure 8.9</strong> This monument in Cádiz, Spain, was commissioned in 1912 to commemorate the Cortes and the centennial of the Constitution of 1812. (credit: “Cortes von Cadiz Monument” by Hajotthu/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 3.0)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Though <OpenstaxTerm>creole</OpenstaxTerm> delegates joined in the constituent deliberations, the Spanish delegates to the Cortes ensured that they retained control of the body. Denying automatic Spanish citizenship and voting rights to men born in the Americas and refusing to count them for purposes of determining the number of delegates to the Cortes guaranteed that power remained in the hands of the European Spaniards and not the Spanish American colonists. Furthermore, the European Spaniards who dominated the Cortes refused to grant colonial demands to abolish the Spanish sales tax and eliminate monopolies, because the income earned from these measures was needed to fight the French.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	White European Spaniards thus retained their political and commercial control over the colonies. However, the experience of forming <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> and sending delegates to the Cortes had broken the colonists’ obedience to Spain, and the refusal to accede to colonial demands could not be enforced. By then, the colonists had already realized that they were completely able to govern themselves. Spain’s politico-economic grip on its colonies continued to weaken as its militarized response proved ineffective.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	With the fall of <OpenstaxTerm>Napoléon</OpenstaxTerm> in 1814, <OpenstaxTerm>Fernando VII</OpenstaxTerm> was finally restored to the Spanish throne. Rather than negotiating once he returned to power, however, he made it clear that the six-year interlude of self-rule in the Americas was over. Fernando dissolved the <OpenstaxTerm>Cortes</OpenstaxTerm>, rejected the Constitution of 1812, persecuted liberals, and dispatched Spanish troops to the colonies to enforce his absolutist policies. This return to colonial order was a relief to royalists, but it enraged the patriots. The creole <OpenstaxEm>juntas</OpenstaxEm> in Spanish America simply could not accept the high costs of returning to the previous colonial administration. Now more than ever, they wanted an equal voice in government and consent to the free trade policy already in place.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The disruption of Spanish sovereignty had brought all colonial grievances to the forefront and sparked immediate reactions in the colonies. The creole elites’ resentment over the reinstatement of pre-Napoleonic policy allowed the search for independence to spark.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

8.1.3 The Peninsular War and the American Question

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life After College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Exchange in East Asia and the Indian Ocean

2.1 India and International Connections

2.1.1 The Mughal Empire

2.1.2 The Sultanate of Gujarat

2.1.3 The Rise of the Maratha Empire

2.1.4 European Colonialism

2.2 The Malacca Sultanate

2.2.1 The Rise of the Malacca Sultanate

2.2.2 European Malacca

2.3 Exchange in East Asia

2.3.1 Japan

2.3.2 China’s Dynastic Exchanges

2.3.3 Korea and Its Neighbors

3 Early Modern Africa and the Wider World

3.1 The Roots of African Trade

3.1.1 Saharan Trade Routes

3.1.2 The Spread of Islam

3.1.3 The Mali Empire

3.2 The Songhai Empire

3.2.1 The Rise of Imperial Songhai

3.2.2 The Reign of Askia the Great

3.2.3 The Decline of Songhai

3.3 The Swahili Coast

3.3.1 The Rise of the Swahili City-States

3.3.2 Slavery on the Swahili Coast

3.3.3 The Contest for the Swahili Coast

3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

3.4.1 The Role of Kanem-Bornu

3.4.2 The Arrival of Europeans

3.4.3 The Later Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

4 The Islamic World

4.1 A Connected Islamic World

4.1.1 Politics and Religion in the Ummah

4.1.2 Islamic Trade Networks

4.1.3 Technology in the Islamic World

4.2 The Ottoman Empire

4.2.1 Culture and Society

4.2.2 Expansion, Revolutions, and Reform

4.2.3 Science and Technology

4.3 The Safavid Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of the Safavid Empire

4.3.2 Establishing Shi‘ism as the State Religion

4.3.3 Safavid Government and Culture

5 Foundations of the Atlantic World

5.1 The Protestant Reformation

5.1.1 The Origins of the Protestant Reformation

5.1.2 Calvinists, Anabaptists, and Anglicans

5.1.3 The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion

5.2 Crossing the Atlantic

5.2.1 The Rise of Maritime Nations

5.2.2 The Columbian Exchange

5.3 The Mercantilist Economy

5.3.1 The Rise of Mercantilism

5.3.2 Mercantilism and the Expansion of Empire

5.3.3 Mercantilism and Its Critics

5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade

5.4.1 Slavery and the Triangular Trade

5.4.2 African and North American Slavery

5.4.3 The Economics of Slavery

6 Colonization and Economic Expansion

6.1 European Colonization in the Americas

6.1.1 Spain’s Encomienda System

6.1.2 English Settlements in North America

6.1.3 French and Dutch Settlements

6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy

6.2.1 The Seven Years’ War

6.2.2 British Influence in India

6.2.3 China’s Dominance in Trade

6.2.4 Colonial Resistance and Revolution

6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

6.3.1 From Mercantilism to Capitalism

6.3.2 Mechanization

6.3.3 Marxism

7 Revolutions in Europe and North America

7.1 The Enlightenment

7.1.1 The Authority of Reason

7.1.2 Natural Rights

7.1.3 Social Contract Theory

7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere

7.2.1 Public Debate and Dissent

7.2.2 The Republic of Letters

7.2.3 Academies, Universities, and Intellectuals

7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti

7.3.1 The American Revolution

7.3.2 The French Revolution

7.3.3 The Haitian Revolution