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World History 2

<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/b3e459009d05268513d966126fbebcf5f5f8f44d" alt="The image on the left shows Louverture in a military uniform, riding a horse, holding a sword over his head. The image on the right is closeup image of Louverture from the waist up. He wears a military uniform and hat." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1235" height="801" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1235">
	Figure 7.1 In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Atlantic world witnessed a series of groundbreaking revolutions, in particular, the Haitian Revolution, initially led by a formerly enslaved man named Toussaint Louverture. The heroic-style portrait of him on the left, first published in 1802 as part of a series of images of generals of the French Revolution, is by an unknown artist, while the likeness on the right is an oil painting from 1804–1805 by the French artist Alexandre François Louis de Girardin. (credit left: modification of work “Portrait of Toussaint Louverture” by John Carter Brown Library/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit right: modification of work “Toussaint Louverture” by Jeangagnon/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The eighteenth century was an era of radical political transformation, social upheaval, and far-reaching change that reverberated across the Atlantic. As new ideas began to challenge traditional political structures and hierarchies, people increasingly debated the rights of individuals and the proper limits of royal and religious authority. Many, such as Toussaint Louverture, the leader of the Haitian Revolution (<a href="#fig-00001">Figure 7.1</a>), were inspired by the philosophical movement known as the Enlightenment, which embraced the principles of reason and intellectual optimism. Enlightenment ideals were only partially realized. But the growing spirit of critical thinking ultimately inspired a series of <OpenstaxTerm>revolution</OpenstaxTerm>s that radically transformed political and economic life.
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	In the American Revolution, colonists’ rejection of arbitrary monarchical power and taxation expanded into a full-fledged demand for national independence. The French Revolution also represented a rejection of traditional royal privileges and the inauguration of a new political model. In neither case, however, did the demands for freedom and inclusion extend to Black people, Native Americans, women, or religious minorities. As the first sustained and successful challenge to the institution of slavery in the Atlantic world, the Haitian Revolution, more than any other conflict of the eighteenth century, resulted in the most widespread radical change. Rather than being universally supported, however, each of these three revolutions and their embrace of newfound freedoms met with a reactionary backlash, the effects of which reached into the modern world.
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<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/64ce02d3daf872f041d7b0a8224f558c71002921" alt="In 1645, the first European coffee house opens in Venice; an image of a historical coffee house is shown. In 1651, Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan; an image used in the book is shown. In 1660, the Royal Society of London is founded. In 1690, John Locke publishes the Second Treatise of Government. From 1762 to 1796, Empress Catherine II rules Russia; an image of Catherine II is shown. In 1776, the United States declares independence. In 1789, the French Revolution begins; a cartoon from the revolution, is shown. In 1791, the Haitian Revolution begins; an image of a battle during the revolution is shown. From 1814 to 1815, the Congress of Vienna convenes; an image of the congress is shown. In 1859, John Stewart Mill publishes On Liberty. In 1871, Germany unification occurs." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1301" height="741" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1301">
	Figure 7.2 (credit “1645”: modification of work “Depiction of an Ottoman Coffeehouse” by Routledge/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1651”: modification of work “Leviathan by Abraham Bosse/Thomas Hobbes” by Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1762–1796”: modification of work “Portrait of Catherine II of Russia” by Kunsthistorisches Museum/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1789”: modification of work “Les Trois Ordres” by Gallica Digital Library/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1791”: modification of work “Haitian Revolution” by Auguste Raffet/Hebert in Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; credit “1814–1815”: modification of work “The Congress of Vienna” by Unknown/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
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<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00003" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/ca47919efb56de9f47d95a50f0e98e2dedf5625a" alt="A map of the world is shown. In Western Europe, Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and the continental area covered by France, Benelux, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Italy is shaded. The eastern part of the United States is shaded, and Haiti is shaded." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1101" height="750" />
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	Figure 7.3 (credit: modification of work “World map blank shorelines” by Maciej Jaros/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
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7 Revolutions in Europe and North America

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life After College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Exchange in East Asia and the Indian Ocean

2.1 India and International Connections

2.1.1 The Mughal Empire

2.1.2 The Sultanate of Gujarat

2.1.3 The Rise of the Maratha Empire

2.1.4 European Colonialism

2.2 The Malacca Sultanate

2.2.1 The Rise of the Malacca Sultanate

2.2.2 European Malacca

2.3 Exchange in East Asia

2.3.1 Japan

2.3.2 China’s Dynastic Exchanges

2.3.3 Korea and Its Neighbors

3 Early Modern Africa and the Wider World

3.1 The Roots of African Trade

3.1.1 Saharan Trade Routes

3.1.2 The Spread of Islam

3.1.3 The Mali Empire

3.2 The Songhai Empire

3.2.1 The Rise of Imperial Songhai

3.2.2 The Reign of Askia the Great

3.2.3 The Decline of Songhai

3.3 The Swahili Coast

3.3.1 The Rise of the Swahili City-States

3.3.2 Slavery on the Swahili Coast

3.3.3 The Contest for the Swahili Coast

3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

3.4.1 The Role of Kanem-Bornu

3.4.2 The Arrival of Europeans

3.4.3 The Later Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

4 The Islamic World

4.1 A Connected Islamic World

4.1.1 Politics and Religion in the Ummah

4.1.2 Islamic Trade Networks

4.1.3 Technology in the Islamic World

4.2 The Ottoman Empire

4.2.1 Culture and Society

4.2.2 Expansion, Revolutions, and Reform

4.2.3 Science and Technology

4.3 The Safavid Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of the Safavid Empire

4.3.2 Establishing Shi‘ism as the State Religion

4.3.3 Safavid Government and Culture

5 Foundations of the Atlantic World

5.1 The Protestant Reformation

5.1.1 The Origins of the Protestant Reformation

5.1.2 Calvinists, Anabaptists, and Anglicans

5.1.3 The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion

5.2 Crossing the Atlantic

5.2.1 The Rise of Maritime Nations

5.2.2 The Columbian Exchange

5.3 The Mercantilist Economy

5.3.1 The Rise of Mercantilism

5.3.2 Mercantilism and the Expansion of Empire

5.3.3 Mercantilism and Its Critics

5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade

5.4.1 Slavery and the Triangular Trade

5.4.2 African and North American Slavery

5.4.3 The Economics of Slavery

6 Colonization and Economic Expansion

6.1 European Colonization in the Americas

6.1.1 Spain’s Encomienda System

6.1.2 English Settlements in North America

6.1.3 French and Dutch Settlements

6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy

6.2.1 The Seven Years’ War

6.2.2 British Influence in India

6.2.3 China’s Dominance in Trade

6.2.4 Colonial Resistance and Revolution

6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

6.3.1 From Mercantilism to Capitalism

6.3.2 Mechanization

6.3.3 Marxism

7.1 The Enlightenment

7.1.1 The Authority of Reason

7.1.2 Natural Rights

7.1.3 Social Contract Theory

7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere

7.2.1 Public Debate and Dissent

7.2.2 The Republic of Letters

7.2.3 Academies, Universities, and Intellectuals

7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti

7.3.1 The American Revolution

7.3.2 The French Revolution

7.3.3 The Haitian Revolution

7.4 Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism, and the Political Order