Chinese, Mandarin

Spanish

English

Hindi

Arabic

Portuguese

Bengali

Russian

Japanese

Punjabi

German

Javanese

Malay

Telugu

Vietnamese

Korean

French

Marathi

Tamil

Urdu

Turkish

Italian

Chinese, Yue / Cantonese

Thai

Gujarati

Chinese, Jin

Chinese, Min Nan

Persian, Dari

Persian, Western

Polish

Pashto

Kannada

Chinese, Xiang

Malayalam

Sundanese

Hausa

Odia

Burmese

Chinese, Hakka

Ukrainian

Bihari, Bhojpuri

Tagalog

Yoruba

Bihari, Maithili

Uzbek

Sindhi

Amharic

Fula

Romanian

Oromo

Igbo

Azerbaijani

Chinese, Gan

Dutch

Kurdish, Central

Kurdish, Northern

Kurdish, Southern

Malagasy

Lahnda, Saraiki

Nepali

Sinhalese

Chittagonian

Zhuang

Khmer

Turkmen

Assamese

Madurese

Somali

Marwari

Bihari, Magahi

Haryanvi

Hungarian

Chhattisgarhi

Greek, Modern

Chewa

Dakhini

Akan, Twi

Akan, Fante

Kazakh

Chinese, Min Bei

Sylheti

Zulu

Czech

Kinyarwanda

Marwari, Dhundhari

Haitian Creole

Chinese, Min Dong

Ilocano

Quechua

Kirundi

Swedish

Hmong

Shona

Uyghur

Hiligaynon

Mossi

Xhosa

Belarusian

Balochi

World History 2

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Despite the absence of centralized political authority, communication across long distances was possible in the Islamic world because <OpenstaxTerm>Arabic</OpenstaxTerm>, the language of the Quran, also served for most scholarly and administrative purposes as well as religious ones. Scholars were widely scattered but rarely were they isolated, and most traders carried letters across long distances as part of their cargo. Scientists were thus able to compare their observations, students learned from advisers and mentors in far-off lands, and members of the <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>ulama</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> sought counsel from colleagues they might never meet.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Because of the dominance of <OpenstaxTerm>trade</OpenstaxTerm> and travel in the Islamic world, scientific and technological innovations that supported these endeavors were especially prized. Mapmaking, for example, was particularly valued. Maps were created by geographers who collected information about the known world through either their own observations or knowledge disseminated by others. For example, in 1513, the Ottoman admiral and cartographer Piri Reis completed a map of the known world (<a href="#fig-00006">Figure 4.9</a>). To do so, he relied on observations made by Christopher Columbus, Portuguese explorers in India, and several Arab sources. Unfortunately, only about one-third of his map has survived.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00006" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/db878365d6cc7846e81bb657f7cb07d1a225b527" alt="A rectangular fragment of a map is shown with torn, worn edges and stains. The Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Africa, and Brazil are shown. Images of ships appear in the waters. On land, images of animals, people, terrain, and buildings are shown. Script appears along the left edge of the map. Lines are drawn throughout the map leading to and from circles on the map." mediaType="image/jpg" width="900" height="1201" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="900">
	<strong>Figure 4.9</strong> The only remaining portion of the world map created in 1513 by the Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis shows the Atlantic Ocean bordered by Europe, Africa, and Brazil. (credit: “Map of the world by Ottoman admiral Piri Reis, drawn in 1513” by Library of Topkapi Palace Museum/Wikipedia, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	One of the travelers who produced a wealth of geographic information for Islamic mapmakers was Ibn <OpenstaxTerm>Battuta</OpenstaxTerm>, a fourteenth-century Moroccan reputed to have traveled more than seventy-three thousand miles during his lifetime. He initially journeyed to <OpenstaxTerm>Mecca</OpenstaxTerm> to perform the <OpenstaxTerm>hajj</OpenstaxTerm>, the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, but then decided to continue exploring north and east of Arabia instead of going home. He eventually made his way to China, returning via East Africa and crossing the Sahara to Mali as an envoy of the king of Morocco. Toward the end of his life, Ibn Battuta dictated his memoirs of his travels, which not only were important for mapmakers of his time but also remain a valuable primary source for historians today. Other travelers also produced hajj narratives that pilgrims often used as guides to the lands they passed through.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Beyond developing devices useful for trade and travel, Islamic innovators also devised systems for using location and compass headings to calculate the <OpenstaxEm>qibla</OpenstaxEm>, the direction toward Mecca that Muslims must face while praying. Early methods relied on crude directions (“Mecca is east”), but by the ninth century, mathematical calculations were being used. By the fourteenth century, mathematics had progressed to the degree that Shams al-Din al-Khalili, the official timekeeper of Damascus, applied advanced trigonometry to calculate the <OpenstaxEm>qibla</OpenstaxEm> for a range of locations with such precision that today’s satellite technology is barely able to improve on it. These and other efforts to fix a person’s location on the globe led to advancements in astronomical measurements, as did the need to calculate prayer times each day based on the sun’s position in the sky.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Military <OpenstaxTerm>technology</OpenstaxTerm>, especially the use of <OpenstaxTerm>gunpowder</OpenstaxTerm>, also greatly advanced in this period. Originally developed in China, gunpowder was transmitted to the Islamic world in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, possibly first introduced by the Mongols. By the fifteenth century, the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire were using firearms like the arquebus, an early long gun, in battle. And it was the Ottomans who famously used artillery in the siege of Constantinople in 1453. The <OpenstaxTerm>Ottoman Empire</OpenstaxTerm> was not the only Islamic state to use and improve upon gunpowder arms. Both the <OpenstaxTerm>Safavid</OpenstaxTerm>s in Iran and the <OpenstaxTerm>Mughal</OpenstaxTerm>s in India were famous for their ability to arm their soldiers with firearms like the powerful matchlock rifle (<a href="#fig-00007">Figure 4.10</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00007" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/135b505c74278e03633eb06424f72aefc386aa9d" alt="A man with a black moustache wears a long, blue belted shirt with two slits along the bottom, red pants, and ornate blue and orange slippers. On his head he wears an orange hat with a white cloth tied around it. He holds a blue and orange rifle over his left shoulder with his left arm and is putting something on a string toward his mouth with his right. His belt holds many colorful, hanging objects as well as a long orange scarf." mediaType="image/jpg" width="650" height="811" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="650">
	<strong>Figure 4.10</strong> The matchlock, shown here in the arms of a Mughal officer in the sixteenth century, was a powerful and portable firearm used by Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal armies. (credit: “Officer of the Mughal Army, c.1585 (colour litho)” by The Bridgeman Art Library/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In 1974, historians Marshall G. S. Hodgson and William H. McNeill theorized that the adoption of <OpenstaxTerm>gunpowder</OpenstaxTerm> technology was what led to the rise of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal realms, coining the term “gunpowder empires” as a description of them. Today that theory is largely disputed, but the name has remained. What these empires had in common was their conception of the entire state as a military force, in which all political, economic, and cultural resources were coordinated by the central government to strengthen the army and maintain internal and external security. Their view of the state and their ability to consolidate resources in order to pay for technological advances also enabled these three empires to research, develop, and deploy new military technologies, including firearms and cannon, much more quickly than their enemies did. For more than two centuries, they were among the strongest and most stable economies in the world, and their patronage of art and culture produced works of visual art, architecture, and literature that are still considered among the best ever produced. Collectively, the so-called gunpowder empires earned the awe, envy, respect, and fear of their contemporaries in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Dueling Voices </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Perspectives on Trade in the Muslim World </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		An emphasis on how Muslims should conduct business affairs is found in some of the <OpenstaxEm>hadith</OpenstaxEm> or sayings of the prophet Muhammad, himself a trader. <OpenstaxTerm>Sunni</OpenstaxTerm> Muslims consider hadiths collected by al-Bukhari, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah among the most authentic guides to behavior. Shi‘ites place more faith in stories narrated by Muhammad’s daughter <OpenstaxTerm>Fatima</OpenstaxTerm> and her husband, Muhammad’s cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, whom they recognize as the Prophet’s direct successor as leader of the Muslim community.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxBlockquote>
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			There will be three types of people whom Allah will neither speak to them on the Day of Resurrection nor will purify them from sins, and they will have a painful punishment: They are, (1) a man who possesses superfluous water along the road who withholds it from travelers. . . . (3) a man who sells something to another man . . . and swears a false oath that he has been offered so much for it whereupon the buyer believes him and buys it although in fact, the seller has not been offered such a price.
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			—Sahih <OpenstaxTerm>al-Bukhari</OpenstaxTerm> 7212
		</OpenstaxParagraph>
	</OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxBlockquote>
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			Hakim asked [Muhammad]: “A man comes to me and wants me to sell him something which is not in my possession. Should I buy it for him from the market?” [Muhammad] replied: “Do not sell what you do not possess.”
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			—Sunan Abi <OpenstaxTerm>Dawud</OpenstaxTerm> 3503
		</OpenstaxParagraph>
	</OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxBlockquote>
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			Transactions may only be done by mutual consent.
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			—Ibn <OpenstaxTerm>Majah</OpenstaxTerm> Vol. 3, Book 12, Hadith 2185
		</OpenstaxParagraph>
	</OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Almost a millennium later, the philosopher and historian Ibn Khaldun wrote about the importance of governments allowing trade:
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxBlockquote>
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			As we have stated, the dynasty is the greatest market, the mother and base of all trade. [It is the market that provides] the substance of income and expenditures [for trade]. If government business slumps and the volume of trade is small, the dependent markets will naturally show the same symptoms, and to a greater degree. Furthermore, money circulates between subjects and ruler, moving back and forth. Now, if the ruler keeps it to himself, it is lost to the subjects. This is how God proceeds with His servants.
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			—<OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>Muqaddimah</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>, Chapter 3, section 40
		</OpenstaxParagraph>
	</OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxUl>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			According to the hadith, what are some of the ethical standards that should govern business? Why do you think these were made part of religious law?
		</OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			According to Ibn Khaldun, why is allowing trade important for a government? What would happen if governments restricted it?
		</OpenstaxLi>
	</OpenstaxUl>
</OpenstaxNote>

4.1.3 Technology in the Islamic World

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life After College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Exchange in East Asia and the Indian Ocean

2.1 India and International Connections

2.1.1 The Mughal Empire

2.1.2 The Sultanate of Gujarat

2.1.3 The Rise of the Maratha Empire

2.1.4 European Colonialism

2.2 The Malacca Sultanate

2.2.1 The Rise of the Malacca Sultanate

2.2.2 European Malacca

2.3 Exchange in East Asia

2.3.1 Japan

2.3.2 China’s Dynastic Exchanges

2.3.3 Korea and Its Neighbors

3 Early Modern Africa and the Wider World

3.1 The Roots of African Trade

3.1.1 Saharan Trade Routes

3.1.2 The Spread of Islam

3.1.3 The Mali Empire

3.2 The Songhai Empire

3.2.1 The Rise of Imperial Songhai

3.2.2 The Reign of Askia the Great

3.2.3 The Decline of Songhai

3.3 The Swahili Coast

3.3.1 The Rise of the Swahili City-States

3.3.2 Slavery on the Swahili Coast

3.3.3 The Contest for the Swahili Coast

3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

3.4.1 The Role of Kanem-Bornu

3.4.2 The Arrival of Europeans

3.4.3 The Later Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

4 The Islamic World

4.1 A Connected Islamic World

4.1.1 Politics and Religion in the Ummah

4.1.2 Islamic Trade Networks

4.2 The Ottoman Empire

4.2.1 Culture and Society

4.2.2 Expansion, Revolutions, and Reform

4.2.3 Science and Technology

4.3 The Safavid Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of the Safavid Empire

4.3.2 Establishing Shi‘ism as the State Religion

4.3.3 Safavid Government and Culture

5 Foundations of the Atlantic World

5.1 The Protestant Reformation

5.1.1 The Origins of the Protestant Reformation

5.1.2 Calvinists, Anabaptists, and Anglicans

5.1.3 The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion

5.2 Crossing the Atlantic

5.2.1 The Rise of Maritime Nations

5.2.2 The Columbian Exchange

5.3 The Mercantilist Economy

5.3.1 The Rise of Mercantilism

5.3.2 Mercantilism and the Expansion of Empire

5.3.3 Mercantilism and Its Critics

5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade

5.4.1 Slavery and the Triangular Trade

5.4.2 African and North American Slavery

5.4.3 The Economics of Slavery

6 Colonization and Economic Expansion

6.1 European Colonization in the Americas

6.1.1 Spain’s Encomienda System

6.1.2 English Settlements in North America

6.1.3 French and Dutch Settlements

6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy

6.2.1 The Seven Years’ War

6.2.2 British Influence in India

6.2.3 China’s Dominance in Trade

6.2.4 Colonial Resistance and Revolution

6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

6.3.1 From Mercantilism to Capitalism

6.3.2 Mechanization

6.3.3 Marxism

7 Revolutions in Europe and North America

7.1 The Enlightenment

7.1.1 The Authority of Reason

7.1.2 Natural Rights

7.1.3 Social Contract Theory

7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere

7.2.1 Public Debate and Dissent

7.2.2 The Republic of Letters

7.2.3 Academies, Universities, and Intellectuals

7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti

7.3.1 The American Revolution

7.3.2 The French Revolution

7.3.3 The Haitian Revolution

7.4 Nationalism, Liberalism, Conservatism, and the Political Order