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World History 2

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The reality for many people in Africa, Asia, and Latin America is a stark reminder of the wide gulf between what some refer to as the <OpenstaxTerm>Global North</OpenstaxTerm> and the <OpenstaxTerm>Global South</OpenstaxTerm>. These labels describe the rough geographic pattern evident in the global distribution of the world’s richest and poorest countries. Most of the richest countries, such as the <OpenstaxTerm>United States</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>Canada</OpenstaxTerm>, and the <OpenstaxTerm>EU</OpenstaxTerm> countries, are in the north, while poorer countries predominate in the south (<a href="#fig-00011">Figure 15.34</a>). However, there are also wealthy countries such as <OpenstaxTerm>Australia</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>New Zealand</OpenstaxTerm>, and <OpenstaxTerm>Singapore</OpenstaxTerm> in the southern hemisphere, so the terms actually reflect economic realities and not geography. Furthermore, while not all people living in Global South countries are poor, those that are earn only a fraction of what the average person in a Global North country earns. The world is complicated, and complexity resists simple categorizations.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00011" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/9c8f3ee2a4a8497766ff7f3c866ff7c9fe1d439b" alt="A map of the world is shown. The United States, Canada, Greenland, Europe, Northern Asia, and Australia are highlighted blue and Central America, South America, Africa and South Asia are highlighted red. Antarctica is highlighted yellow." mediaType="image/jpg" width="901" height="614" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="901">
	<strong>Figure 15.34</strong> When people speak of the Global North, shown in blue in this map, they mean mostly wealthy Western countries. With a few exceptions, the Global South, shown in red, means mostly poorer countries, some of which were once colonized by European imperial powers. (credit: modification of work “World map blank shorelines” by Maciej Jaros/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Many of the economic problems in the Global South can be traced to imperial exploitation, sometimes going back centuries. Countries in the Global North, especially in Europe, tended to reap the benefits of this exploitation. The legacy of <OpenstaxTerm>colonialism</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>imperialism</OpenstaxTerm> in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and southern Asia continues to affect these countries in the form of high levels of government corruption, poorly developed industries, and borders drawn for the benefit of imperialist powers rather than by the groups living there. In Africa, borders charted to benefit imperialist powers often separated members of the same ethnic group into different countries while forcing hostile groups into the same country. Violent ethnic conflict has been a frequent result.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Even Global South countries that are resource-rich have struggled to develop their economies over the past few decades. Indeed, they often have more difficulty responding to their domestic needs than countries that are relatively resource-poor. This problem, sometimes dubbed the <OpenstaxTerm>resource curse</OpenstaxTerm>, a term coined by British economist Richard <OpenstaxTerm>Auty</OpenstaxTerm> in 1993, makes resource-rich countries prone to authoritarianism, high rates of conflict, and low rates of economic growth. Resource-poor countries typically use citizens’ taxes for the majority of government funding, resulting in greater public scrutiny over how that money is used and governments that are more responsive to public needs. In contrast, governments in resource-rich countries are able to tap into profit-producing extractive industries like oil production to fund public expenditures. Because that profit is often quite large, opportunities for government corruption abound. Efforts to capture more profit also contribute to conflict and sometimes authoritarian regimes, as politicians use money to reward political supporters and fund security forces that silence opponents and stamp out protest. There is also typically less public scrutiny of potential corruption.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		The resource curse is a complicated problem that scholars and others continue to try to solve. To better understand the issue, take a look at this insightful short <a href="https://openstax.org/l/77Wenar">interview with Leif Wenar</a> in which he discusses the resource curse. Wenar is the author of <OpenstaxEm>Blood Oil: Tyrants, Violence, and the Rules That Run the World.</OpenstaxEm>
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The African country of <OpenstaxTerm>Angola</OpenstaxTerm>, rich in diamonds and oil, has struggled with the resource curse. In 2018, oil made up more than 92 percent of its exports, and the oil industry accounted for about a third of its GDP. Since achieving independence from Portugal in 1975, the country has experienced internal wars and massacres. For much of this period, until 2017, Angola was ruled by José Eduardo <OpenstaxTerm>dos Santos</OpenstaxTerm>, who was routinely criticized internationally for election fraud, corruption, and authoritarianism. Much of his power was derived from the oil rents paid to him by oil companies operating in Angola, which he used to oppress his opposition, maintain his hold on power, and shower his family and close contacts with favors and money. The oil rents were substantial, but relatively little of this money actually trickled down to the country’s largely impoverished people (<a href="#fig-00012">Figure 15.35</a>). Strife also weakened Angola’s ability to feed itself. Famine conditions prevailed in the 1980s and 1990s, and many educated and skilled workers left for opportunities abroad. In 2019, the percentage of the population below the national poverty line was 41 percent, 30 percent of adults had not completed primary schooling, and 53 percent of the country had no access to electricity.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00012" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/89780d4235541b03d19a4d8d6dda95dd821a1f8b" alt="A picture is shown of a basic brick and stone structure with uncovered door and window openings that lead to the outside and a pieced together tin roof. The background shows trees and other simple structures. Through the openings in the structure a plastic white table is seen with a plastic blue chair on the left. In the middle a window opening shows a ledge with a green plastic basket, a bottle, and two pots sitting on a tarp. A red and white sign hangs by the opening with a picture of a bottle on it and the words “Coca-Cola” written in cursive in white and a white wavy stripe running under the words. In the forefront on the bottom left, there is a pile of wood and an axe lying in front of a bowl. In the middle forefront there is a fire surrounded by rocks with a black simple grill above it. Various charred meats cover the grill. Behind the grill a dark-skinned woman stands facing the back in a pink skirt and maroon shirt with a blue cloth tied on her head. To her right a dark-skinned girl stands with braids, white shirt, flip flops and a maroon patterned cloth around her waist. Three men and a woman are seen by the doorway to the right going in and out. The men wear drab polo shirts, dark jeans and pants, and one wears a large brown cowboy hat. The woman wears a green shirt and plaid skirt. A blue and white bowl and two pots are seen in the bottom right of the picture along with a large piece of wood." mediaType="image/jpg" width="976" height="732" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="976">
	<strong>Figure 15.35</strong> Despite their enormous natural riches, the people of Angola continue to live in great poverty, as in this typical village in the country. (credit: “Streetscene Angola village” by Paulo César Santos/Wikimedia Commons, CC0 1.0)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While Angola is an extreme case, its problems are generally representative of those in many countries across the Global South, including those unaffected by the resource curse. As of 2015, approximately 85 percent of the world’s extreme poor (those living on less than $1.90 per day) lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia, and half of them lived in just five countries: <OpenstaxTerm>India</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>Bangladesh</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>Nigeria</OpenstaxTerm>, the <OpenstaxTerm>Democratic Republic of the Congo</OpenstaxTerm>, and <OpenstaxTerm>Ethiopia</OpenstaxTerm>. Many lack access to good-quality medical care, infrastructure, educational resources, and communication systems. They face high rates of famine, disease, and death from political instability. They also experience food instability. According to the United Nations, approximately 800 million people faced hunger in 2020, many in the Global South. They are also more vulnerable to natural disasters like hurricanes, earthquakes, tsunamis, and heat waves. Their countries are more likely to experience problems related to environmental and industrial pollution, as well as the many effects of climate change.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	These difficulties have been at least partially alleviated by the efforts of international organizations like the <OpenstaxTerm>World Bank</OpenstaxTerm> and the <OpenstaxTerm>International Monetary Fund</OpenstaxTerm> (<OpenstaxTerm>IMF</OpenstaxTerm>). The World Bank has encouraged community-driven development by supporting government planning and investments that prioritize a bottom-up approach. It has helped countries manage the problem of persistent natural disasters, such as financing early warning systems for tsunamis in Southeast Asia. And it has provided funds to meet educational needs, to provide infrastructure for clean water, and to combat hunger by boosting agricultural production. Similarly, the IMF has provided a pool of monetary resources countries can access when they fall into financial difficulties.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While both organizations can point to their many achievements, they have occasionally made problems worse. Critics like the economist Joseph <OpenstaxTerm>Stiglitz</OpenstaxTerm>, for instance, point to the many conditions the IMF imposes on countries when it comes to help. These include increased privatization, elimination of protectionist policies, higher interest rates, and austerity measures that reduce government spending. Such conditions, Stiglitz and others have noted, tend to benefit foreign creditors from the <OpenstaxTerm>Global North</OpenstaxTerm> and hurt poor workers in the countries the IMF purports to be saving. Similar criticisms have been directed against the World Bank. Many have argued that the organization lacks representation from the <OpenstaxTerm>Global South</OpenstaxTerm>, so poor countries have relatively little influence within the organization and on its policies and actions.
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15.4.4 Global North and Global South

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life After College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Exchange in East Asia and the Indian Ocean

2.1 India and International Connections

2.1.1 The Mughal Empire

2.1.2 The Sultanate of Gujarat

2.1.3 The Rise of the Maratha Empire

2.1.4 European Colonialism

2.2 The Malacca Sultanate

2.2.1 The Rise of the Malacca Sultanate

2.2.2 European Malacca

2.3 Exchange in East Asia

2.3.1 Japan

2.3.2 China’s Dynastic Exchanges

2.3.3 Korea and Its Neighbors

3 Early Modern Africa and the Wider World

3.1 The Roots of African Trade

3.1.1 Saharan Trade Routes

3.1.2 The Spread of Islam

3.1.3 The Mali Empire

3.2 The Songhai Empire

3.2.1 The Rise of Imperial Songhai

3.2.2 The Reign of Askia the Great

3.2.3 The Decline of Songhai

3.3 The Swahili Coast

3.3.1 The Rise of the Swahili City-States

3.3.2 Slavery on the Swahili Coast

3.3.3 The Contest for the Swahili Coast

3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

3.4.1 The Role of Kanem-Bornu

3.4.2 The Arrival of Europeans

3.4.3 The Later Trans-Saharan Slave Trade

4 The Islamic World

4.1 A Connected Islamic World

4.1.1 Politics and Religion in the Ummah

4.1.2 Islamic Trade Networks

4.1.3 Technology in the Islamic World

4.2 The Ottoman Empire

4.2.1 Culture and Society

4.2.2 Expansion, Revolutions, and Reform

4.2.3 Science and Technology

4.3 The Safavid Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of the Safavid Empire

4.3.2 Establishing Shi‘ism as the State Religion

4.3.3 Safavid Government and Culture

5 Foundations of the Atlantic World

5.1 The Protestant Reformation

5.1.1 The Origins of the Protestant Reformation

5.1.2 Calvinists, Anabaptists, and Anglicans

5.1.3 The Catholic Reformation and the Wars of Religion

5.2 Crossing the Atlantic

5.2.1 The Rise of Maritime Nations

5.2.2 The Columbian Exchange

5.3 The Mercantilist Economy

5.3.1 The Rise of Mercantilism

5.3.2 Mercantilism and the Expansion of Empire

5.3.3 Mercantilism and Its Critics

5.4 The Atlantic Slave Trade

5.4.1 Slavery and the Triangular Trade

5.4.2 African and North American Slavery

5.4.3 The Economics of Slavery

6 Colonization and Economic Expansion

6.1 European Colonization in the Americas

6.1.1 Spain’s Encomienda System

6.1.2 English Settlements in North America

6.1.3 French and Dutch Settlements

6.2 The Rise of a Global Economy

6.2.1 The Seven Years’ War

6.2.2 British Influence in India

6.2.3 China’s Dominance in Trade

6.2.4 Colonial Resistance and Revolution

6.3 Capitalism and the First Industrial Revolution

6.3.1 From Mercantilism to Capitalism

6.3.2 Mechanization

6.3.3 Marxism

7 Revolutions in Europe and North America

7.1 The Enlightenment

7.1.1 The Authority of Reason

7.1.2 Natural Rights

7.1.3 Social Contract Theory

7.2 The Exchange of Ideas in the Public Sphere

7.2.1 Public Debate and Dissent

7.2.2 The Republic of Letters

7.2.3 Academies, Universities, and Intellectuals

7.3 Revolutions: America, France, and Haiti

7.3.1 The American Revolution

7.3.2 The French Revolution

7.3.3 The Haitian Revolution

Question	Answer
pre-internet computer networks that consisted of personal computers connected with each other via modems and phone lines	bulletin board system (BBS)
the problem that makes resource-rich developing countries prone to authoritarianism, high rates of conflict, and low rates of economic growth	resource curse