Chinese (Mandarin)

Spanish

English

Hindi

Arabic

Portuguese

Bengali

Russian

Japanese

Punjabi

German

Javanese

Malay

Telugu

Vietnamese

Korean

French

Marathi

Tamil

Urdu

Turkish

Italian

Chinese, Yue / Cantonese

Thai

Gujarati

Chinese, Jin

Chinese, Min Nan

Persian, Dari

Persian, Western

Polish

Pashto

Kannada

Chinese, Xiang

Malayalam

Sundanese

Hausa

Odia

Burmese

Chinese, Hakka

Ukrainian

Bihari, Bhojpuri

Tagalog

Yoruba

Bihari, Maithili

Uzbek

Sindhi

Amharic

Fula

Romanian

Oromo

Igbo

Azerbaijani

Chinese, Gan

Dutch

Kurdish, Central

Kurdish, Northern

Kurdish, Southern

Malagasy

Lahnda, Saraiki

Nepali

Sinhalese

Chittagonian

Zhuang

Khmer

Turkmen

Assamese

Madurese

Somali

Marwari

Bihari, Magahi

Haryanvi

Hungarian

Chhattisgarhi

Greek

Chewa

Dakhini

Akan, Twi

Akan, Fante

Kazakh

Chinese, Min Bei

Sylheti

Zulu

Czech

Kinyarwanda

Marwari, Dhundhari

Haitian Creole

Chinese, Min Dong

Ilocano

Quechua

Kirundi

Swedish

Hmong

Shona

Uyghur

Hiligaynon

Mossi

Xhosa

Belarusian

Balochi

World History 1

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Sea routes facilitated the movement of goods around the empire. Though the Romans built up a strong network of roads, shipping by sea was considerably less expensive. Thus, access to a seaport was crucial to trade. In Italy, there were several fine seaports, with the city of Rome’s port at <OpenstaxTerm>Ostia</OpenstaxTerm> being a notable example. <OpenstaxTerm>Italy</OpenstaxTerm> itself was the producer of goods that made their way around the Mediterranean. Most manufacturing occurred on a small scale, with shops and workshops often located next to homes. Higher-value goods did find their way to distant regions, and Italy dominated the western trade routes (<a href="#fig-00001">Figure 7.10</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/5643ad550c4dc100f0e7dba9474f71c386b9e879" alt="A map is shown with land highlighted beige and water highlighted blue. Europe is labelled in the north, Africa is labelled in the south, and Asia is labelled in the southeast. The Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Finland, Skagerrak, Kattegat, Vanern, Vattern, and the North Sea are labelled in the north of the map. The Atlantic Ocean, the Bay of Biscay, and the Strait of Gibraltar are labelled in the east. The Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the Caspian Sea are labelled in the east. The Tyrrhenian Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Dardanelles are labelled in the south of the map. Black dots litter the map indicating cities, with these labelled from west to east: Gades, New Carthage, Massilia, Carthage, Lepis Magna, Syracuse, Rome, Athens, and Tyre. Dashed lines crisscross the map connecting the cities and Sea routes crisscross the waters connecting the cities. “Main roads” are labelled with dotted red lines and “Main shipping routes” are labelled with dotted purple lines." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1237" height="632" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1237">
	Figure 7.10 As this map demonstrates, the Romans were able to harness an extensive system of roads and waterways to import and export both practical and luxury goods. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Italy was known for its ceramic, marble, and metal industries. Bronze goods such as cooking equipment and ceramic tableware known as red pottery were especially popular items. Red Samian pottery made its way to places around the Mediterranean and beyond, including Britain and India. Iron goods produced in Italy were exported to Germany and to the Danube region, while bronze goods, most notably from Capua, circulated in the northern reaches of the empire before workshops also developed there. These industries likewise relied on imports, including copper from mines in Spain and tin from Britain for making bronze.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Other Roman industries balanced their production with imported goods from foreign markets. Textiles such as wool and cloth were produced in Italy, while luxury items like linen came from Egypt. Several trading routes existed in addition to the famous Silk Roads. The monsoon-driven Indian Ocean network linked Asia and the Mediterranean and provided the Romans with silk from China and India and furs from the Baltic region. The eastern empire was known for its luxury goods, including purple dye, papyrus, and glass from Egypt and Syria. For a time, central Italy did manufacture and export glass products northward, until manufacturing in Gaul (present-day France) and Germany took over the majority of its production in the second century CE. Building supplies such as tiles, marble, and bricks were produced in Italy.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Agricultural goods were an important aspect of the Roman economy and trade networks. Grain-producing Egypt functioned as the empire’s breadbasket, and Italian farmers were therefore able to focus on other, higher-priced agricultural products including wine and olive oil. Wine was exported to markets all over the Mediterranean, including Greece and Gaul. Both wine and olive oil, as well as other goods, were usually shipped in <OpenstaxTerm>amphorae</OpenstaxTerm>. These large storage vases had two handles and a pointed end, which made them ideal for storing during shipment. They may have been tied together or placed on a rack when shipped by sea (<a href="#fig-00002">Figure 7.11</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/868790e58e9a65e77000a97037abdd1e0dfe7f41" alt="An earthenware object is shown on a gray background. It is long, round, and faded gray, white, and rust colored. The left end has a broken point, the middle is thicker, and the right side is thinner with a rounded, circular end and a handle visible on the front." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1300" height="339" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1300">
	Figure 7.11 Amphorae (the plural of amphora) were large vessels essential for shipping liquid goods in the Mediterranean world. Their slender shape and pointed base made for easy storage whether they were placed upright in a ship’s hold or set in the soft ground. (credit: “Roman Amphora” by Mrs. Elvi Adamcak/Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History, CC0)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The government’s official distribution of grain to the populace was called the <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>annona</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> and was especially important to Romans. It had begun in the second century BCE but took on new importance by the reign of Augustus. The emperor appointed the <OpenstaxEm>praefectus annonae</OpenstaxEm>, the prefect who oversaw the distribution process, governed the ports to which grain was shipped, and addressed any fraud in the market. The prefect and his staff also secured the grain supply from Egypt and other regions by signing contracts with various suppliers.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Roman government was also generally concerned with controlling overseas trade. An elite class of shipowners known as the <OpenstaxEm>navicularii</OpenstaxEm> were compelled by the government to join groups known as <OpenstaxEm>collegia</OpenstaxEm> (corporations) so they could be easily supervised. For signing contracts to supply grain, these shipowners received benefits including exemption from other public service. By the third and fourth centuries CE, control of the <OpenstaxEm>navicularii</OpenstaxEm> had intensified, and signing contracts to supply the <OpenstaxEm>annona</OpenstaxEm> was compulsory.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxEm>annona</OpenstaxEm> kept the populace fed but was also a political tool; the emperor hoped his generosity would endear him to the people. The distribution of grain was thus heavily tied to the personality of the emperor. For instance, like many emperors, <OpenstaxTerm>Hadrian</OpenstaxTerm>, who ruled from 138 to 161 CE, associated himself with the <OpenstaxEm>annona</OpenstaxEm> to create a positive image before the public (<a href="#fig-00003">Figure 7.12</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00003" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/eb507e537dd222e9eced490d637cc3c215ac3109" alt="An image of two old and faded coins is shown on a pink woven background. The coin on the left is round, gold with black shading on the right side and faded letters around the perimeter. A man’s face is carved in the middle, facing to the right, with a round head, large flat nose and thick neck. The coin on the right is gold and worn. Faded letters circle parts of the perimeter and a figure with wings is shown in the middle. The figure wears a cap, extends their arm out to the right, and appears to wear long robes. The letter “S” is shown on the left and the letter “C” is shown on the right." mediaType="image/jpg" width="900" height="436" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="900">
	Figure 7.12 On this coin issued by Hadrian, the emperor’s likeness is on one side (left); the other side portrays Annona, the representation of the grain supply, holding a cornucopia in one hand and grain ears in the other. In the background is the prow of a ship, likely a reference to the grain supply entering the city of Rome. (credit: “Vespasian Dupondius” by Guy de la Bedoyere/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>

7.3.1 Trade

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life after College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Early Humans

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

2.1.1 Human Evolution

2.1.2 Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

2.1.3 Early Human Technologies

2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.1 Ice, Ice, and More Ice

2.2.2 Life in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.3 Diverse Paleolithic Peoples

2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

2.3.1 The Development of Agriculture

2.3.2 How Farming Changed the Human Experience

2.3.3 Neolithic Peoples

3 Early Civilizations and Urban Societies

3.1 Early Civilizations

3.1.1 Attributes of Early Civilizations

3.1.2 The First Urban Societies

3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia

3.2.1 The Rise and Eclipse of Sumer

3.2.2 The Rise of the World’s First Empire

3.2.3 Later Empires in Mesopotamia

3.2.4 Society and Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

3.3 Ancient Egypt

3.3.1 The Origins of Ancient Egypt

3.3.2 The Age of Pyramid Building

3.3.3 A Second Age of Egyptian Greatness

3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 The Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.2 Trade, Writing, and Religion

3.4.3 The Era of Decline

4 The Near East

4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes

4.1.1 Power Politics in the Near East

4.1.2 Foreign Affairs and Trade

4.1.3 Daily Life and the Family in the Near East

4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom

4.2.1 The Hyksos in Egypt

4.2.2 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom

4.2.3 Egypt’s Foreign Policy

4.3 The Persian Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of Persia

4.3.2 Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

4.3.3 Persian Culture and Daily Life

4.4 The Hebrews

4.4.1 The History of the Hebrews

4.4.2 The Culture of the Hebrews

5 Asia in Ancient Times

5.1 Ancient China

5.1.1 Prehistoric China

5.1.2 Early Dynastic China

5.1.3 The Zhou Dynasty

5.1.4 The Warring States Era and Qin Unification

5.2 The Steppes

5.2.1 The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes

5.2.2 Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors

5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

5.3.1 Ancient Korea

5.3.2 Ancient Japan

5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire

5.4.1 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

5.4.2 The Aryans and Brahmanism

5.4.3 Buddhism

5.4.4 The Mauryan Empire

5.4.5 The Gupta Dynasty

6 Mediterranean Peoples

6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples

6.1.1 The Late Bronze Age World

6.1.2 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans

6.2 Ancient Greece

6.2.1 Archaic Greece

6.2.2 Sparta and Athens

6.2.3 Classical Greece

6.3 The Hellenistic Era

6.3.1 The Kingdom of Macedon

6.3.2 Hellenistic Culture

6.4 The Roman Republic

6.4.1 The Foundation and Function of the Roman Republic

6.4.2 The Expansion of the Roman Republic

6.5 The Age of Augustus

6.5.1 The First Triumvirate

6.5.2 From Republic to Principate

7 Experiencing the Roman Empire

7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family

7.1.1 The Structure of Roman Families

7.1.2 A Day in the Life of a Roman Family

7.1.3 What Family Meant in Rome