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World History 1

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Sulla was unable to crush the <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>populares</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> completely since some discontented groups still opposed the Senate leadership. After his retirement, new military and political leaders sought power with the support of these groups. Three men in particular eventually assumed enormous dominance. One was <OpenstaxTerm>Pompey</OpenstaxTerm> Magnus, who became a popular general, and thousands of landless Romans joined his client army on the promise of land. In 67 BCE, Roman armies under Pompey’s command suppressed pirates in the eastern Mediterranean who had threatened Rome’s imported grain supplies. Pompey next conclusively defeated Mithridates of Pontus, who had again gone on the attack against Rome. By 63 BCE, Pompey had subdued Asia Minor, annexed Syria, destroyed the Seleucid kingdom, and occupied Jerusalem.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another politician and military commander of this era was <OpenstaxTerm>Crassus</OpenstaxTerm>. He had served under Sulla, achieved popularity in Rome by fighting against Spartacus, and used the support of disaffected wealthy Romans such as publicans to amass a huge fortune. The third influential figure was Julius <OpenstaxTerm>Caesar</OpenstaxTerm>, whose original source of popularity was the fact that Marius was his uncle. When Sulla took control, Caesar lost much of his influence, but by 69 BCE he was making a political comeback and winning the support of <OpenstaxEm>populares</OpenstaxEm> in Rome.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>optimates</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> in the Senate distrusted all these men and cooperated to block their influence in Roman politics. In response, in 60 BCE the three decided to join forces to advance their interests though a political alliance known to history as the <OpenstaxTerm>First Triumvirate</OpenstaxTerm> (“rule by three men”). Together its members had the wealth and influence to run the Roman Republic, but they were all very ambitious and each greatly distrusted the others. After serving as consul in 60 BCE, Julius Caesar took command of the Roman army in Gaul (modern France). Over the next ten years, his armies conquered all Gaul and launched attacks against German tribes across the Rhine, and on the island of Britain across the English Channel. The Roman people were awed by Caesar’s military success, and Pompey and Crassus grew jealous of his popularity. In 54 BCE, Crassus invaded the <OpenstaxTerm>Parthian Kingdom</OpenstaxTerm> in central Asia, hoping for similar military and political triumphs. The invasion was a disaster, however, and Crassus was captured by the Parthians and executed.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Roman Empire had now grown large, thanks to Pompey’s and Caesar’s conquests (<a href="#fig-00001">Figure 6.35</a>). After Crassus’s death, Pompey decided to break with Caesar and support his old enemies the <OpenstaxEm>optimates.</OpenstaxEm> In 49 BCE, the <OpenstaxEm>optimates</OpenstaxEm> and Pompey controlled the Senate and demanded that Caesar disband his army in Gaul and return to Rome to stand trial on various charges. Instead, Caesar convinced his client army to march on Rome. In January of that year he famously led his troops across the <OpenstaxTerm>Rubicon River</OpenstaxTerm>, the traditional boundary between Italy and Gaul. Since Caesar knew this move would trigger war, as it was illegal to bring a private army into Rome proper, the phrase “crossing the Rubicon” continues to mean “passing the point of no return.” In 48 BCE, Caesar defeated Pompey at the <OpenstaxTerm>Battle of Pharsalus</OpenstaxTerm> in northern Greece. Shortly after this, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was murdered by the Egyptian pharaoh <OpenstaxTerm>Ptolemy XIII</OpenstaxTerm>, who hoped to win Caesar’s favor.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/58f207c76e7393659726f5909bc0d67eba90d701" alt="A map is shown labelled “The Roman Empire through 44 BCE.” Water is highlighted blue and land is highlighted beige. Water is shown at the northwest and running along the middle bottom of the map. An oval area of water is shown in the east. A boot-shaped peninsula in the middle of the map is highlighted green as well as the three islands to its west indicating “218 BCE.” A squarish area of land at the west of the map, three small areas in the middle of the map and two larger areas at the northern end of the water in the middle of the map are highlighted orange indicating “133 BCE.” A large area of land in the west is highlighted purple indicating “44 BCE.” Small areas along the south of the map as well as an “S” shaped area in the southeast of the map are also highlighted purple." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1300" height="704" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1300">
	<strong>Figure 6.35</strong> Some of the areas marked in purple, like Gaul and Syria, were added to the Roman Empire by the victories of Julius Caesar and Pompey, respectively. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	To prosecute the war against Pompey, Caesar had himself appointed <OpenstaxTerm>dictator</OpenstaxTerm> in 48 BCE. Despite the tradition that dictatorship was to be temporary, Caesar’s position was indefinite. In 46 BCE, he was appointed dictator for a term of ten years, and in 44 BCE his dictatorship was made permanent, or for life. These appointments and other efforts to accumulate power unnerved many Romans, who had a deep and abiding distrust of autocratic rulers that stretched all the way back to the period of Etruscan rule. Caesar had hoped to win over his former enemies by inviting them to serve again in the Senate and appointing them to positions in his government. However, these former <OpenstaxEm>optimates</OpenstaxEm> viewed him as a tyrant, and in 44 BCE two of them, <OpenstaxTerm>Brutus</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>Cassius</OpenstaxTerm>, led a conspiracy that resulted in his assassination.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		In Shakespeare’s play <OpenstaxEm>Julius Caesar</OpenstaxEm>, written in about 1599, <OpenstaxTerm>Marc Antony</OpenstaxTerm> gives one of the most famous speeches in English literature, based in part on the work of ancient Roman historians like <OpenstaxTerm>Plutarch</OpenstaxTerm>. In this <a href="https://openstax.org/l/77AntonySpeech">short clip of that speech from the 1970 film adaptation</a> of the play, Charlton Heston plays the part of Marc Antony.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

6.5.1 The First Triumvirate

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life after College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Early Humans

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

2.1.1 Human Evolution

2.1.2 Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

2.1.3 Early Human Technologies

2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.1 Ice, Ice, and More Ice

2.2.2 Life in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.3 Diverse Paleolithic Peoples

2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

2.3.1 The Development of Agriculture

2.3.2 How Farming Changed the Human Experience

2.3.3 Neolithic Peoples

3 Early Civilizations and Urban Societies

3.1 Early Civilizations

3.1.1 Attributes of Early Civilizations

3.1.2 The First Urban Societies

3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia

3.2.1 The Rise and Eclipse of Sumer

3.2.2 The Rise of the World’s First Empire

3.2.3 Later Empires in Mesopotamia

3.2.4 Society and Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

3.3 Ancient Egypt

3.3.1 The Origins of Ancient Egypt

3.3.2 The Age of Pyramid Building

3.3.3 A Second Age of Egyptian Greatness

3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 The Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.2 Trade, Writing, and Religion

3.4.3 The Era of Decline

4 The Near East

4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes

4.1.1 Power Politics in the Near East

4.1.2 Foreign Affairs and Trade

4.1.3 Daily Life and the Family in the Near East

4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom

4.2.1 The Hyksos in Egypt

4.2.2 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom

4.2.3 Egypt’s Foreign Policy

4.3 The Persian Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of Persia

4.3.2 Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

4.3.3 Persian Culture and Daily Life

4.4 The Hebrews

4.4.1 The History of the Hebrews

4.4.2 The Culture of the Hebrews

5 Asia in Ancient Times

5.1 Ancient China

5.1.1 Prehistoric China

5.1.2 Early Dynastic China

5.1.3 The Zhou Dynasty

5.1.4 The Warring States Era and Qin Unification

5.2 The Steppes

5.2.1 The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes

5.2.2 Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors

5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

5.3.1 Ancient Korea

5.3.2 Ancient Japan

5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire

5.4.1 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

5.4.2 The Aryans and Brahmanism

5.4.3 Buddhism

5.4.4 The Mauryan Empire

5.4.5 The Gupta Dynasty

6 Mediterranean Peoples

6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples

6.1.1 The Late Bronze Age World

6.1.2 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans

6.2 Ancient Greece

6.2.1 Archaic Greece

6.2.2 Sparta and Athens

6.2.3 Classical Greece

6.3 The Hellenistic Era

6.3.1 The Kingdom of Macedon

6.3.2 Hellenistic Culture

6.4 The Roman Republic

6.4.1 The Foundation and Function of the Roman Republic

6.4.2 The Expansion of the Roman Republic

6.5 The Age of Augustus

6.5.2 From Republic to Principate

7 Experiencing the Roman Empire

7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family

7.1.1 The Structure of Roman Families

7.1.2 A Day in the Life of a Roman Family

7.1.3 What Family Meant in Rome

7.2 Slavery in the Roman Empire