Chinese (Mandarin)

Spanish

English

Hindi

Arabic

Portuguese

Bengali

Russian

Japanese

Punjabi

German

Javanese

Malay

Telugu

Vietnamese

Korean

French

Marathi

Tamil

Urdu

Turkish

Italian

Chinese, Yue / Cantonese

Thai

Gujarati

Chinese, Jin

Chinese, Min Nan

Persian, Dari

Persian, Western

Polish

Pashto

Kannada

Chinese, Xiang

Malayalam

Sundanese

Hausa

Odia

Burmese

Chinese, Hakka

Ukrainian

Bihari, Bhojpuri

Tagalog

Yoruba

Bihari, Maithili

Uzbek

Sindhi

Amharic

Fula

Romanian

Oromo

Igbo

Azerbaijani

Chinese, Gan

Dutch

Kurdish, Central

Kurdish, Northern

Kurdish, Southern

Malagasy

Lahnda, Saraiki

Nepali

Sinhalese

Chittagonian

Zhuang

Khmer

Turkmen

Assamese

Madurese

Somali

Marwari

Bihari, Magahi

Haryanvi

Hungarian

Chhattisgarhi

Greek

Chewa

Dakhini

Akan, Twi

Akan, Fante

Kazakh

Chinese, Min Bei

Sylheti

Zulu

Czech

Kinyarwanda

Marwari, Dhundhari

Haitian Creole

Chinese, Min Dong

Ilocano

Quechua

Kirundi

Swedish

Hmong

Shona

Uyghur

Hiligaynon

Mossi

Xhosa

Belarusian

Balochi

World History 1

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the Archaic period, <OpenstaxTerm>Athens</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>Sparta</OpenstaxTerm> emerged as two of the most important of the many Greek city-states. Not only did their governments and cultures dominate the Greek world in the subsequent Classical period; they also fired the imaginations of Western cultures for centuries to come. Athens was the birthplace of <OpenstaxTerm>democracy</OpenstaxTerm>, whereas Sparta was an oligarchy headed by two kings.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>The Rise and Organization of Sparta</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Sparta in the eighth century BCE was a collection of five villages in <OpenstaxTerm>Laconia</OpenstaxTerm>, a mountain valley in the Peloponnese in southern Greece. Due to the shortage of farmland, the citizens (adult males) of these villages, the <OpenstaxEm>Spartiates</OpenstaxEm>, all served in the military and waged war on neighboring towns, forcing them to pay tribute. The Spartiates also appropriated farmland for themselves and enslaved the inhabitants of these lands, most famously the Messenians, who became known as the <OpenstaxEm>helots.</OpenstaxEm> Just as Greek colonists at this time divided land among themselves into equal lots, the Spartiates likewise divided the conquered land equally and assigned to each landowner a certain number of <OpenstaxTerm>helot</OpenstaxTerm> families to work it. Helots, unlike enslaved people in other parts of Greece, could not be bought or sold but remained on the land as forced laborers from generation to generation. In the seventh century BCE, Sparta conquered the land of <OpenstaxTerm>Messene</OpenstaxTerm> to its west and divided its farmland equally among the Spartiates.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the late sixth century BCE, the wealth from the rich agricultural land that Sparta then controlled had made it the most powerful state in the Peloponnese. Sparta also organized the city-states of this region and parts beyond into a system of alliances that historians refer to as the <OpenstaxTerm>Peloponnesian League</OpenstaxTerm>. Its members still had self-government and paid no tribute to Sparta, but all were expected to have the same friends and enemies as Sparta, which maintained its dominance in the league. Sparta also used its army to overthrow tyrants in the Peloponnesian city-states and restore political power to the <OpenstaxEm>aristoi</OpenstaxEm>.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Spartans were proud of their unique system of government, or constitution, which was a set of laws and traditional political practices rather than a single document. It was said to have been created by a great lawgiver named <OpenstaxTerm>Lycurgus</OpenstaxTerm> around 800 BCE, but modern historians view its development as an evolutionary process during the Archaic period rather than the work of a single person.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Sparta had two hereditary kings drawn from rival royal families. Their powers were very limited, though both sat as permanent members of the Council of Elders and were priests in the state religion. On occasion, the Spartan kings also led armies into battle. The <OpenstaxTerm>Assembly of Spartiates</OpenstaxTerm> passed all laws and approved all treaties with the advice of the <OpenstaxTerm>Council of Elders</OpenstaxTerm>. This Assembly also elected five judges every year who administered the affairs of state, as well as the members of the Council of Elders.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The unique element of Spartan culture was the <OpenstaxEm>agoge</OpenstaxEm>, its educational system. At the age of seven, boys were separated from their families and raised by the state. To teach them to live by their wits and courage, they were fed very little so they had to learn how to steal food to survive. At the age of twelve they began an even more severe regimen. They were not allowed clothes except a cloak in the wintertime, and they bathed just once a year (<a href="#fig-00004">Figure 6.12</a>). They also underwent ritual beatings intended to make them physically strong and hardened warriors. At the age of eighteen, young men began two years of intense military training. At the age of twenty, a young Spartan man’s education was complete.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00004" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/5518fdf7db4309b32d9e94eaa8091631fc44592d" alt="An image of a painting is shown. The forefront of the image has a group of four girls, naked except for waistcloths in black and blue with red and yellow belts standing on a field of green grass. They have brownish hair in ponytails and buns. They face to the right, one with her arm outstretched. At the right, a group of four completely naked boys stand, while one is on all fours on the ground, all looking at the girls. They have short black, brown, and blond hair and one has his arms above his head. A pile of cloths lay at his feet. In the middle background nine people stand in colorful dresses and cloths with two white small four-legged animals by their sides. No facial details are shown. Behind them a brown road runs the length of the painting and a blurry city can be seen in the far right in pale brown and white colors. A large, tall cream-colored mountain is seen in the far left of the image and the sky is a hazy beige with blue undertones." mediaType="image/jpg" width="900" height="633" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="900">
	<strong>Figure 6.12</strong> The design of this nineteenth-century painting by French impressionist Edgar Degas was based on a passage from Plutarch’s Life of Lycurgus and depicts Spartan girls encouraging and challenging Spartan boys. Here the boys prepare to compete in running and wrestling exercises. (credit: “Young Spartans exercising” by National Gallery, 1924: purchased from Courtauld Fund/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Women of the Spartiate class, before marrying in their mid-teens, also practiced a strict physical regimen, since they were expected to be as strong as their male relatives and husbands and even participate in defending the homeland. Spartan women enjoyed a reputation for independence, since they managed the farms while men were constantly training for or at war and often ran their family estates alone due to the early deaths of their soldier husbands. The state organized unmarried women into teams known as <OpenstaxEm>chorai</OpenstaxEm> (from which the term <OpenstaxEm>chorus</OpenstaxEm> is derived) that danced and sang at religious festivals.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	When a Spartiate man reached the age of thirty, he could marry, vote in the Assembly, and serve as a judge. Each Spartiate remained in the army reserve until the age of sixty, when he could finally retire from military service and became eligible for election to the Council of Elders. Spartan citizens were proud to devote their time to the service of the state in the military and government; they did not have to work the land or learn a trade since this work was done for them by commoners and helot subjects.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>The Rise and Organization of Athens</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Athens</OpenstaxTerm>, like Sparta, developed its own system of government in the Archaic period. Uniquely large among Greek city-states, Athens had long enclosed all the land of <OpenstaxTerm>Attica</OpenstaxTerm>, which included several mountain valleys. It was able to eventually develop into a militarily powerful democratic state in which all adult male citizens could participate in government, though “citizenship” was a restricted concept, and because only males could participate, it was by nature a limited <OpenstaxTerm>democracy</OpenstaxTerm>.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The roots of Athenian democracy are long and deep, however, and its democratic institutions evolved over centuries before reaching their fullest expression in the fifth century BCE. It was likely the growing prosperity of Athenians in the eighth century that had set Athens on this path. As more families became prosperous, they demanded greater say in the functioning of the city-state. By the seventh century BCE, Athens had an assembly allowing citizens (free adult males) to gather and discuss the affairs of the state. However, as the rising prosperity of Athenians stalled and economic hardship loomed by the end of the century, the durability of the fledgling democracy seemed in doubt. Attempts to solve the economic problems by adjusting the legal code, most notably by the legislator <OpenstaxTerm>Draco</OpenstaxTerm> (from whose name we get the modern term “draconian”), had little effect, though codifying the law in written form brought more clarity to the legal system.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	With the once-thriving middle class slipping into bankruptcy and sometimes slavery, civil war seemed inevitable. Disaster was avoided only with the appointment of <OpenstaxTerm>Solon</OpenstaxTerm> in 594 BCE to restore order. Solon came from a wealthy elite family, but he made it known that he would draft laws to benefit all Athenians, rich and poor. A poet, he used his songs to convey his ideas for these new laws (<a href="#fig-00005">Figure 6.13</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00005" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/0191b68ec7a80f60c0bcfd7e25fa47ddedb36431" alt="An image of a brightly colored painting is seen. In the image, a barefoot fair-skinned man is dressed in a bright red robe with his right shoulder exposed. He has dark hair and a full beard and is bright eyed. A thin gold headband runs across his head. He sits on a large stone seat that is chipped at the bottom and has the carving of a feathered bird in a circle at the right. The letters “OHN” are seen on the seat, partially obscured by his cloak. His head rests in his left hand, arm bent at the elbow and his right arm is stretched out holding a large brown rectangular plank with a white scroll hanging on both sides. He holds a gold writing implement in his right hand as well. The background shows large pale gray and blue mountains and a cloudy blue sky." mediaType="image/jpg" width="700" height="732" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="700">
	<strong>Figure 6.13</strong> This idealized portrait in oils represents Solon, poet and legislator of Athens. It was made in the early nineteenth century by Merry-Joseph Blondel, a French painter of the Neoclassical school. (credit: “Portrait of Solon Legislator and Poet of Athenes” by Musee de Picardie/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	One of Solon’s first measures was to declare that all debts Athenians owed one another were forgiven. Solon also made it law that no Athenian could be sold into slavery for failure to repay a loan. These decrees did much to provide relief to farmers struggling with debt who could now return to work the land. Under Solon’s new laws, each of Athens’s four traditional tribes chose one hundred of its members by lot, including commoners, to sit in the new <OpenstaxTerm>Council of Four Hundred</OpenstaxTerm> and run the government. There were still magistrates, but now Solon created the jury courts. All Athenians could appeal the ruling of a magistrate in court and have their cases heard by a jury of fellow citizens. Solon also set up a hierarchal system in which citizens were eligible for positions in government based on wealth instead of hereditary privilege. Wealth was measured by the amount of grain and olive oil a citizen’s land could produce. Only the wealthiest could serve as a magistrate, sit on the Council, and attend the Assembly and jury courts. Citizens with less wealth could participate in all these activities but could not serve as magistrates. The poorest could only attend the Assembly and the jury courts.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Solon’s reforms were not enough to end civil unrest, however. By 545 BCE, a relative of his named <OpenstaxTerm>Pisistratus</OpenstaxTerm> had seized power by force with his own private army and ruled as a <OpenstaxTerm>tyrant</OpenstaxTerm> with broad popular support. Pisistratus was reportedly a benevolent despot and very popular. He kept Solon’s reforms largely in place, and Athenians became accustomed to serving in Solon’s Council and in jury courts. They were actively engaged in self-government, thus setting the stage for the establishment of democracy. Pisistratus also encouraged the celebration of religious festivals and cults that united the people of Attica through a common religion. To further help the farmers Solon brought back, Pisistratus redistributed land so they could once again make a living.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	After Pisistratus’s death, his sons tried to carry on as tyrants, but they lacked their father’s popularity. Around 509 BCE, an Athenian aristocrat named <OpenstaxTerm>Cleisthenes</OpenstaxTerm> persuaded the Spartans to intervene in Athens and overthrow these tyrants. The Spartans, however, set up a government of elites in Athens that did not include Cleisthenes. Consequently, he appealed to the common people living in the villages, or <OpenstaxEm>demes</OpenstaxEm>, to reject this pro-Spartan regime and establish a “<OpenstaxEm>demo</OpenstaxEm>cracy.” His appeal was successful, and Cleisthenes implemented reforms to Solon’s system of government. He replaced the <OpenstaxTerm>Council of Four Hundred</OpenstaxTerm> with one of five hundred and reorganized the Athenians into ten new tribes, including in each one villages from different parts of <OpenstaxTerm>Attica</OpenstaxTerm>. Every year, each tribe chose fifty members by lot to sit in the new Council. This reform served to unite the Athenians, since each tribe consisted of people from different parts of Attica who now had to work together politically. Each tribe’s delegation of fifty also served as presidents for part of the year and ran the day-to-day operation of the government.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the end of the Archaic period, Athens had developed a functioning direct <OpenstaxTerm>democracy</OpenstaxTerm>, which differs from modern republics in which citizens vote for representatives who sit in the legislature. All citizens could sit in the <OpenstaxTerm>Athenian Assembly</OpenstaxTerm>, which then was required to meet at least ten times a year. All laws had to be approved by the Assembly. Only the Assembly could declare war and approve treaties. Athens had a citizen body of thirty to forty thousand adult males in the Classical period, but only six thousand needed to convene for meetings of the Assembly. Citizens could also be chosen by lot to sit in the Council. Since they were permitted to serve for just two one-year terms over a lifetime, many Athenians had the opportunity to participate in the executive branch of government. All citizens also served on juries, which not only determined the guilt or innocence of the accused but also interpreted the way the law was applied. Women, enslaved people, and foreign residents could not participate. However, women of the citizen class were prominent in the public religious life of the city, serving as priestesses and in ceremonial roles in religious festivals.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

6.2.2 Sparta and Athens

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life after College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Early Humans

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

2.1.1 Human Evolution

2.1.2 Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

2.1.3 Early Human Technologies

2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.1 Ice, Ice, and More Ice

2.2.2 Life in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.3 Diverse Paleolithic Peoples

2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

2.3.1 The Development of Agriculture

2.3.2 How Farming Changed the Human Experience

2.3.3 Neolithic Peoples

3 Early Civilizations and Urban Societies

3.1 Early Civilizations

3.1.1 Attributes of Early Civilizations

3.1.2 The First Urban Societies

3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia

3.2.1 The Rise and Eclipse of Sumer

3.2.2 The Rise of the World’s First Empire

3.2.3 Later Empires in Mesopotamia

3.2.4 Society and Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

3.3 Ancient Egypt

3.3.1 The Origins of Ancient Egypt

3.3.2 The Age of Pyramid Building

3.3.3 A Second Age of Egyptian Greatness

3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 The Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.2 Trade, Writing, and Religion

3.4.3 The Era of Decline

4 The Near East

4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes

4.1.1 Power Politics in the Near East

4.1.2 Foreign Affairs and Trade

4.1.3 Daily Life and the Family in the Near East

4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom

4.2.1 The Hyksos in Egypt

4.2.2 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom

4.2.3 Egypt’s Foreign Policy

4.3 The Persian Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of Persia

4.3.2 Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

4.3.3 Persian Culture and Daily Life

4.4 The Hebrews

4.4.1 The History of the Hebrews

4.4.2 The Culture of the Hebrews

5 Asia in Ancient Times

5.1 Ancient China

5.1.1 Prehistoric China

5.1.2 Early Dynastic China

5.1.3 The Zhou Dynasty

5.1.4 The Warring States Era and Qin Unification

5.2 The Steppes

5.2.1 The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes

5.2.2 Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors

5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

5.3.1 Ancient Korea

5.3.2 Ancient Japan

5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire

5.4.1 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

5.4.2 The Aryans and Brahmanism

5.4.3 Buddhism

5.4.4 The Mauryan Empire

5.4.5 The Gupta Dynasty

6 Mediterranean Peoples

6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples

6.1.1 The Late Bronze Age World

6.1.2 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans

6.2 Ancient Greece

6.2.1 Archaic Greece

6.2.3 Classical Greece

6.3 The Hellenistic Era

6.3.1 The Kingdom of Macedon

6.3.2 Hellenistic Culture

6.4 The Roman Republic

6.4.1 The Foundation and Function of the Roman Republic

6.4.2 The Expansion of the Roman Republic

6.5 The Age of Augustus

6.5.1 The First Triumvirate

6.5.2 From Republic to Principate

7 Experiencing the Roman Empire

7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family

7.1.1 The Structure of Roman Families

7.1.2 A Day in the Life of a Roman Family

7.1.3 What Family Meant in Rome

7.2 Slavery in the Roman Empire