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World History 1

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Historians have categorized the different crusades and given them numbers for convenience and to distinguish between various developments within the crusading movement (<a href="#fig-00002">Figure 13.19</a>). The <OpenstaxTerm>Crusades</OpenstaxTerm> were rarely well organized, however, and one of the challenges they all faced was trying to move people from one end of Europe to the other. For example, during the First Crusade, the followers of <OpenstaxTerm>Peter the Hermit</OpenstaxTerm> arrived in <OpenstaxTerm>Constantinople</OpenstaxTerm> first. They did not wait for other groups to arrive and were ferried over to Anatolia (the Asian part of today’s Turkey) by Alexios, the Byzantine ruler. The Turks destroyed this army, and very few survived to return to Constantinople. Later crusaders understood that gathering intelligence in Constantinople was crucial to avoiding Peter’s fate.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/0230bd5f04a5376a972fcc6efb9e9477df132e06" alt="Two maps are shown. A small map in the right bottom corner is labelled “Crusader State After the First Crusade.” The map inside shows a white area at the west with a yellow island in the eastern end labelled “Cyprus.” More yellow land is north of the white area indicating “Greek Orthodox territory” with the city of Tarsus labelled. Along the eastern edge of the white part is a thin sliver of peach highlighted land indicating “Roman Catholic territory” labelled with the following areas, from north to south: County of Edessa with the city of Edessa (Sanliurfa) labelled, Principality of Antioch with the city of Antioch labelled, County of Tripoli with the city of Tripoli labelled, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem with the cities of Beirut, Acre (‘Akko), and Jerusalem labelled. The rest of the land is highlighted dark green and the city of Damascus is labelled southeast of Beirut. The second map is larger on the left and is titled “Early Crusades.” The map shows the North Atlantic Ocean labelled in the northwest, the Mediterranean Sea in the south, with the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea labelled in the east. The land drawn along the southern portion of the map, south of the Mediterranean Sea and heading to the southeast is highlighted dark green to indicate “Islamic territory.” A small area in the west is also highlighted Dark green. The areas within this green land are labelled: Dominions of the Almoravids (the cities of Lisbon and Valencia labelled within), Dominions of the Hamadites, Dominions of the Zeirids, Fatimites (with the Nile River labelled within), an unlabeled area (with Jerusalem and Damascus labelled within), and Sultanate of Rum lying south of the Black Sea. On the eastern side of the Mediterranean Sea a peach highlighted area is labelled “Crusader States” with the cities of Edesssa (Sanliurfa), Antioch, and Acre (‘Akko) labelled within. Northwest of the Mediterranean Sea all the land shown in highlighted peach as well. The following areas labelled from north to south: England (cities of London and Dartmouth labelled within), Holy Roman Empire (cities of Metz, Regensburg, Vienna, Lyon, Venice, Genoa, Marseille, and Rome labelled within), Poland, Hungary, Croatia (the city of Spalato (Split) labelled within), Norman Kingdom (with the cities of Bari and Messina Labelled), France (with the cities of Paris, Clermont and Toulouse labelled within), Navarra, Aragon, Catalonia (with the city of Barcelona labelled within), Leon, Portugal and Castille (with the city of Toledo labelled within). Land east of Poland and Hungary is highlighted yellow indicating “Greek Orthodox territory” and labelled Russia. Land south of Hungary is also highlighted yellow and labelled Byzantine Empire (with the cities of Bagusa (Dubrovnik), Naissus (Nis), Adrianople (Edirne), Dyrrhachium (Durres), Constantinople (Istanbul), Trebizond (Trabzon), Smyrna (Izmir), Tarsus, Candia (Iraklion), Famagusta, and Limassol. Two areas to the northeast and northwest of the Black Sea are labelled din green lettering indicating “Peripheral peoples.) These two areas are labelled Cumen and Khazars. Red arrowed lines run back on forth on the map from the Crusader States across the Sultanante of Rum, through the Byzantine Empire and into the Holy Roman Empire indicating the ”First Crusade, 1096-1099.” Green arrowed lines indicating “Second Crusade, 1147-1149” run on the map from the middle of the Hold Roman Empire southeast through the Byzantine Empire to the Crusader States. Blue arrowed lines indicating “Third Crusade, 1189-1191” run from England in the North Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, touching on the shores of the Holy Roman Empire and the Norman Kingdom and ending at the Crusader States. Blue arrowed lines run from Paris through the Holy Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Sultanante of Rum and end in Cyprus. Black lines indicating “Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204” begin in Venice and go along the shores on the Byzantine Empire in the Mediterranean Sea and north through the Byzantine Empire lands, ending at Constantinople." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1300" height="676" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1300">
	Figure 13.19 The First through Fourth Crusades all faced logistic and other challenges and met with varying degrees of success. (credit: “Early Crusades” by United States. Central Intelligence Agency/Norman B. Leventhal Map Center Collection at the Boston Public Library)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The bulk of the First Crusade was directed by powerful aristocrats whose armies were better organized and prepared to fight than Peter’s, even if most of its participants were not the most senior nobles of Western society. <OpenstaxTerm>Alexios</OpenstaxTerm> promised them aid in exchange for the return of Byzantine territory held by Muslims, which most initially agreed to. The crusaders crossed Anatolia and, after laying a bloody siege with little help from the Byzantines, took control of the port of Antioch, an ancient seat of Christianity in the Holy Land. After their victory, they felt Alexios was undeserving of either the city or their fidelity. The city was thus given to a Norman crusader who had no intention of delivering it to Alexios, straining the relationships between the crusaders and the Byzantine Empire.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>First Crusade</OpenstaxTerm> finally reached Jerusalem in the summer of 1099. Before attacking the city, the crusaders fasted and walked around its walls as penitents, an act that shows the blending of pilgrimage with armed conflict. The crusaders then took the city, and in an act that shocked Muslims and Christians alike, they massacred the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The crusading armies then took other important cities in the area, and to secure their control they established the four Crusader States: the <OpenstaxTerm>County of Edessa</OpenstaxTerm>, the <OpenstaxTerm>Principality of Antioch</OpenstaxTerm>, the <OpenstaxTerm>County of Tripoli</OpenstaxTerm>, and the <OpenstaxTerm>Kingdom of Jerusalem</OpenstaxTerm>. These Crusader States were also called <OpenstaxTerm>Outremer</OpenstaxTerm> (literally “overseas”) by the French, and they claimed Jerusalem as their capital (<a href="#fig-00003">Figure 13.20</a>). Of all the Crusades, this was the only one that accomplished its objective.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00003" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/543ab7d3bcb92df5a4a6543d89b2920168bbbba1" alt="A map shows land in a backward “C” shape with a blue area in the west. The land is mostly beige colored with the “Byzantine Empire” labelled in the north, the “Seljuk Empire” labelled in the east, and the Fatimid Empire” labelled in the south. The Nile River is labelled in the south. An oval area is highlighted pink and labelled “County of Edessa” to the northeast of the blue area. The city of Edessa is labelled within. Southwest of that is a squarish area of land highlighted green and labelled “Principality of Antioch” with the city of Antioch labelled within. To the south along the blue areas eastern edge is a small section highlighted orange and labelled “County of Tripoli” with the city of Tripoli labelled within. To the south is the “Kingdom of Jerusalem” highlighted blue with the city of Jerusalem labelled within." mediaType="image/jpg" width="808" height="898" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="808">
	Figure 13.20 The four Crusader States, or Outremer, were the territories seized by members of the First Crusade: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Despite the surprising success of the First Crusade, <OpenstaxTerm>Outremer</OpenstaxTerm> suffered some critical problems from the beginning. The crusaders had alienated the Byzantine Empire by not returning to it important cities like Antioch or lands in the Middle East as they had promised. The European aristocrats and knights were eager to acquire lands for themselves, which meant they often fought with each other even when faced with a common enemy. And while there was always at least a trickle of warriors who made it to Outremer, the elite remained in desperate need of soldiers to defend their new territories.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Recent media representations have tried to portray a realistic view of the Crusades that includes their internal factionalism and intolerance, but realism often gives way to a filmmaker’s need for a more compelling character, a more stylish scene, or the inclusion of inappropriately modern sentiments. Follow the link to read a historian’s review of the 2005 Ridley Scott <a href="https://openstax.org/l/77scottfilm">crusader film</a> <OpenstaxEm>Kingdom of Heaven</OpenstaxEm>.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Muslims’ confusion about the nature and goals of the crusaders, as well as internal conflicts among them, initially dampened their political and military response. The Muslims adapted quickly, however, especially the <OpenstaxTerm>Seljuks</OpenstaxTerm> who prevented many of the newly arriving knights from ever reaching Outremer. A Turkic aristocrat named <OpenstaxTerm>Imad al-Din Zengi</OpenstaxTerm> began to cultivate the image of a holy warrior opposing the crusaders. While he spent most of his career ruthlessly scheming against other Muslim rulers, he managed to take the city of Edessa, in the northernmost of the Crusader States. He was praised as a defender of Islam, but he was assassinated before he could continue his campaign against the crusaders. The loss of Edessa posed a serious threat to the remaining Crusader States, however, and prompted the pope to call the <OpenstaxTerm>Second Crusade</OpenstaxTerm>.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Second Crusade, from 1147 to 1149, was heralded by a new generation of preachers like <OpenstaxTerm>Bernard of Clairvaux</OpenstaxTerm> who inspired believers to “take up the cross.” Bernard also wrote the rules for the <OpenstaxTerm>Knights Templar</OpenstaxTerm>, one of the new crusading orders, religious orders of monks devoted to protecting Christian pilgrims and fighting to support Outremer. This crusade was led by powerful rulers, including King <OpenstaxTerm>Louis VII</OpenstaxTerm> of France and King <OpenstaxTerm>Conrad III</OpenstaxTerm> of Germany (<a href="#fig-00004">Figure 13.21</a>). The armies of the Second Crusade were defeated in Anatolia in separate battles, and few soldiers reached the Holy Land. The kings accomplished very little, and many blamed the Byzantine emperor, who had learned to be distrustful of European armies. Bernard of Clairvaux was humiliated and apologized to the pope, claiming the sins of the crusaders had caused the defeat. It was a disaster that seemed as complete as the First Crusade had looked miraculous.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00004" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/3d335cd1f6b6de8d127682fe7079543b7806d3a9" alt="An image of a richly colorful scene is shown. In the forefront, seven people on the left stand in front of a highly decorated building with an archway opening, carved in gold colors with columns and rich designs at the arch. Both sides of the building show circle and diamond shaped carvings of figures in gold colors on teal colored walls with columns displayed in bright pastel colors. Carvings can be seen across the top of the building. The group of seven figures wears long collared robes in red, blue, and gold colors with red and black caps on their heads. All have shoulder length brown hair, no facial hair, and stoic expressions. A figure in front of them with long brown hair, no cap, and eyes cast down in a long gold robe begins to kneel. He holds a gold bag in his left hand and extends his right hand out to a figure in front of him. The figure is dressed in rich blue robes with gold designs all over, wears a gold crown, has brown shoulder length hair and extends their arms out to the kneeling man. Behind the figure in the right of the forefront stand a mass of people in long bright solid robes with blue and red caps and shoulder length hair. Behind them stand a mass of soldiers in full body armor holding spears and showing crosses on their chests. Four people in long robes stand at the left edge of the group of soldiers. In the background eight horses are seen with five riders. The horses range from brown with brown reins to a white horse with red reins and a horse regaled with long blue and gold robes wearing a mask that matches. The riders are holding on to the horse with no riders. Tall castle-like buildings can be seen in the background with stone walls, bright blue roofs, tall arched doorways, windows and towers. The ground is sandy colored and rocky." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1101" height="978" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1101">
	Figure 13.21 This illustration from a fifteenth-century chronicle of the Crusades shows King Louis VII, in blue and wearing a gold crown, being welcomed to Antioch during the Second Crusade. (credit: “Raymond Of Poitiers Welcoming Louis VII in Antioch” by Passages d’Outremer/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	After this loss, the situation for Outremer only became more dire. Imad al-Din Zengi’s successors were well liked, even by crusaders, and they strove to unite the Muslim princes in jihad. The most famous of these successors was Salah al-Din, or <OpenstaxTerm>Saladin</OpenstaxTerm> in the Christian world. He was known for being humane, fair-minded, and, in Christians terms, chivalrous. He expanded his territory from Syria into Egypt and founded a new dynasty called the <OpenstaxTerm>Ayyubids</OpenstaxTerm> from the ashes of the Shia Fatimid Caliphate. He also took up his religious calling to wage jihad against the crusaders. In 1187, after years of gathering allies and eroding the military power of Outremer, he destroyed the crusaders at the <OpenstaxTerm>Battle of the Horns of Hattin</OpenstaxTerm> (in today’s Israel). Within months, <OpenstaxTerm>Jerusalem</OpenstaxTerm> fell to Saladin.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Christians’ response was the <OpenstaxTerm>Third Crusade</OpenstaxTerm> (1189–1192). This crusade was prompted both by the fear that Outremer was about to be wiped off the map and by the desire to retake Jerusalem. Kings from England, the Holy Roman Empire, and France as well as other powerful princes answered the call. When they arrived in the last remaining Christian outposts in the Middle East, they quickly fell to squabbling with each other and the aristocracy of Outremer. As a result, the Christians were able to conquer the island of Cyprus and the coastline of the Holy Land but were unable to move farther inland. Eventually, <OpenstaxTerm>Richard I</OpenstaxTerm> of England, known in popular stories as Richard the Lionhearted, negotiated a treaty with <OpenstaxTerm>Saladin</OpenstaxTerm> that left Jerusalem under Muslim control but allowed Christian pilgrims to freely visit the city. Both Saladin and Richard were praised as examples of chivalric virtue in Europe and heroes of their respective religions. But this was one of the last successes the crusaders were to have in the Holy Land.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

13.4.2 The First, Second, and Third Crusades

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life after College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Early Humans

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

2.1.1 Human Evolution

2.1.2 Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

2.1.3 Early Human Technologies

2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.1 Ice, Ice, and More Ice

2.2.2 Life in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.3 Diverse Paleolithic Peoples

2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

2.3.1 The Development of Agriculture

2.3.2 How Farming Changed the Human Experience

2.3.3 Neolithic Peoples

3 Early Civilizations and Urban Societies

3.1 Early Civilizations

3.1.1 Attributes of Early Civilizations

3.1.2 The First Urban Societies

3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia

3.2.1 The Rise and Eclipse of Sumer

3.2.2 The Rise of the World’s First Empire

3.2.3 Later Empires in Mesopotamia

3.2.4 Society and Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

3.3 Ancient Egypt

3.3.1 The Origins of Ancient Egypt

3.3.2 The Age of Pyramid Building

3.3.3 A Second Age of Egyptian Greatness

3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 The Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.2 Trade, Writing, and Religion

3.4.3 The Era of Decline

4 The Near East

4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes

4.1.1 Power Politics in the Near East

4.1.2 Foreign Affairs and Trade

4.1.3 Daily Life and the Family in the Near East

4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom

4.2.1 The Hyksos in Egypt

4.2.2 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom

4.2.3 Egypt’s Foreign Policy

4.3 The Persian Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of Persia

4.3.2 Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

4.3.3 Persian Culture and Daily Life

4.4 The Hebrews

4.4.1 The History of the Hebrews

4.4.2 The Culture of the Hebrews

5 Asia in Ancient Times

5.1 Ancient China

5.1.1 Prehistoric China

5.1.2 Early Dynastic China

5.1.3 The Zhou Dynasty

5.1.4 The Warring States Era and Qin Unification

5.2 The Steppes

5.2.1 The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes

5.2.2 Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors

5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

5.3.1 Ancient Korea

5.3.2 Ancient Japan

5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire

5.4.1 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

5.4.2 The Aryans and Brahmanism

5.4.3 Buddhism

5.4.4 The Mauryan Empire

5.4.5 The Gupta Dynasty

6 Mediterranean Peoples

6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples

6.1.1 The Late Bronze Age World

6.1.2 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans

6.2 Ancient Greece

6.2.1 Archaic Greece

6.2.2 Sparta and Athens

6.2.3 Classical Greece

6.3 The Hellenistic Era

6.3.1 The Kingdom of Macedon

6.3.2 Hellenistic Culture

6.4 The Roman Republic

6.4.1 The Foundation and Function of the Roman Republic

6.4.2 The Expansion of the Roman Republic

6.5 The Age of Augustus

6.5.1 The First Triumvirate

6.5.2 From Republic to Principate

7 Experiencing the Roman Empire

7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family

7.1.1 The Structure of Roman Families

7.1.2 A Day in the Life of a Roman Family

7.1.3 What Family Meant in Rome