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World History 1

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The Kushan Empire was located in northwest India and flourished from the second century BCE to the third century CE. The empire initially arose from the <OpenstaxTerm>Yuezhi</OpenstaxTerm> people’s uniting of several nomadic tribes into a single state. Eventually renamed Kushan after its ruling dynasty, this state gradually took territory from the Parthians’ eastern empire. Sometime in the first century BCE, the Kushans moved south, establishing the dual capital cities of <OpenstaxTerm>Kapisa</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>Pushklavati</OpenstaxTerm> near the modern-day cities of Kabul and Peshawar. Under the control of the emperor <OpenstaxTerm>Kanishka</OpenstaxTerm>, who ruled the empire during the mid-second century CE (the exact dates are uncertain), the Kushan Empire reached its greatest extent and cultural influence. Kanishka conducted military campaigns, extending Kushan into central China and northern India, and the empire eventually included parts of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan, as well as northern India (<a href="#fig-00001">Figure 10.18</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/742925afdba56e7ecacfe31ee1f1d40d9f93fc3c" alt="A map is shown of China on the eastern side of the map and land going west and south from there. The Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, the Laccadive Sea, and the Bay of Bengal are shown along the bottom of the map. There is an arrow shaped area west of China highlighted green in the northwest portion of the map labeled “Kushan Empire.” Within the green area there are areas labeled from north to south: Bactria, Pamir, Hindu-Kush, Gandhara, and Arachosia. Cities labeled within this area from north to south are: Kapisa, Pushklavati, Kashgar, Bactra, Surkh Kotal, Begram, and Taxila. Above the green highlighted area there are two labels for “Sogdiana” and “Ferghana. To the east in China the cities of Kucha and Turfan are labeled. West of the green area is a label for “Gedrosia.” South of the highlighted area are the labels for: Western Satraps, Satavahana Empire, Pandyan Kingdom, Cholas, and on an island at the southern part of the map in the Bay of Bengal there is a label for Tamraparni Kingdom. South of the green area the following cities are labeled, from north to south: Mathura, Barbaricum, Ujjain, Saketa, Pataliputra, Vidisa, Barygaza, Kundina, Champa, Pune, Pratishthana, and Amaravati." mediaType="image/jpg" width="901" height="950" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="901">
	<strong>Figure 10.18</strong> At its greatest extent in the mid-second century, the Kushan Empire stretched from modern-day Uzbekistan to northern India, with two capital cities: Kapisa and Pushklavati. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	At the confluence of several rivers in a valley plain, the Gandhara region of Kushan was home to a particularly vibrant culture whose influence extended across the Indus River into the rest of Kushan. The people of <OpenstaxTerm>Gandhara</OpenstaxTerm> produced a unique artistic style, incorporating Greco-Roman elements but focused on Buddhist subjects. This blending of cultures extended to the region’s population; as a result of multiple conquests made before the Kushan Empire, the people of Gandhara claimed lineage from the Macedonian Greeks at the time of Alexander, from the Parthians, and from Indian peoples.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> In Their Own Words </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> The Diverse Culture of Kushan: An Outsider’s Perspective </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		There was a literary tradition in central Asia during the period of the Kushan Empire, but anything that could have provided primary information about Kushan has been lost. The region was fascinating for outsiders, however, who wrote extensively about its different peoples, its diverse culture, and its extensive trade network. <OpenstaxEm>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</OpenstaxEm>, written in Greek by an anonymous Egyptian merchant around 70 CE, is a firsthand account of trade routes beginning in Egypt and covering east Africa and Arabia before finally focusing on the east coast of India. The author discusses the nature of each route, the goods imported and exported, and the nature of local people in each region.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxBlockquote>
		 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			The country inland from Barygaza is inhabited by numerous tribes, such as the Arattii, the Arachosii, the Gandaraei and the people of Poclais, in which is Bucephalus Alexandria. Above these is the very war-like nation of the Bactrians [Kushan], who are under their own king. And Alexander, setting out from these parts, penetrated to the Ganges, leaving aside Damirica [Limyrike] and the southern part of India; and to the present day ancient drachma [Greek coins] are current in Barygaza, coming from this country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of those who reigned after Alexander, Apollodotus and Menander.” (47)
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			“After this region under the very north, the sea outside ending in a land called This, there is a very great inland city called Thinae [China], from which raw silk and silk yarn and silk cloth are brought on foot through Bactria to Barygaza, and are also exported to Damirica [Limyrike] by way of the river Ganges. But the land of This is not easy of access; few men come from there, and seldom. The country lies under the Lesser Bear [Ursa Minor] and is said to border on the farthest parts of Pontus and the Caspian Sea, next to which lies Lake Maeotis; all of which empty into the ocean.
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
		<OpenstaxParagraph>
			—Author unknown, <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>, translated by Schoff
		</OpenstaxParagraph> 
	</OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxUl>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			What sense do you get about the extent and diversity of the Kushan trade network based on this author’s account?
		</OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			What features of this account demonstrate that it was written by an outsider, rather than an indigenous member of Kushan society?
		</OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxLi>
			What challenges do historians face if these are the only types of accounts available to teach Kushan history?
		</OpenstaxLi>
	</OpenstaxUl>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Kushan</OpenstaxTerm> played a crucial role along the <OpenstaxTerm>Silk Roads</OpenstaxTerm>, acting as the link between the trading partners <OpenstaxTerm>China</OpenstaxTerm> and the <OpenstaxTerm>Roman Empire</OpenstaxTerm>. Its connections to Rome are clear from the Roman coins found in the Kushan region, as well as from written evidence that several Kushan embassies were sent to Roman emperors. Romans in turn received various luxury goods from Asia via Kushan, including jewelry, furs, and silk. In addition, Kushan protected a mountain pass that linked its empire to central China, allowing people and goods to easily enter this region. Its trade and cultural ties in China extended as far as Mongolia. Through its proximity to the sea to the south via the Indus River valley, Kushan also connected maritime and overland trade routes, and Kushan materials have been found in locations from Scandinavia to Ethiopia.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The religious identities of the region were likewise diverse, with a mix of people practicing <OpenstaxTerm>Buddhism</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>Zoroastrianism</OpenstaxTerm> among other faiths. Religious accommodation was a hallmark of Kushan, and its rulers might have felt compelled to embrace various faiths to win over people newly integrated into the empire. For example, some coinage of Kushan rulers shows a fire altar that bears a striking resemblance to Zoroastrian iconography. Yet Buddhism appears to have been important to the rulers of Kushan, who gave this religion special preference. For example, Emperor <OpenstaxTerm>Kanishka</OpenstaxTerm> undertook several initiatives to promote Buddhism. He made Buddhist texts more widely available and had many translated into other native languages such as <OpenstaxTerm>Sanskrit</OpenstaxTerm>. Around 100 CE, he convened the Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir. This council decided to recognize two sects of Buddhism, <OpenstaxTerm>Mahayan</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>Hinayan</OpenstaxTerm>, and compiled the <OpenstaxTerm>Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts</OpenstaxTerm>, a systematic presentation of Buddhist doctrines. Kanishka also contributed to the production of art in Kushan. In what may have been a further attempt at accommodating different beliefs, Kushan art includes the first images of the Buddha in human form (<a href="#fig-00002">Figure 10.19</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/e105b08bd6ac3b3f25a0696a6b0c58a4477a9932" alt="A picture of a golden-black sculpture is shown on a black background. The bare left foot of the man in long flowing robes stands on an ornately carved, square pedestal. His bare right foot is behind him. He is missing his hands and there is a flat circular disc behind his head. He wears a beaded head dressing with a small dome on top of his head, wears earrings, and has a plump, stoic face." mediaType="image/jpg" width="650" height="867" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="650">
	<strong>Figure 10.19</strong> This skillfully made third-century sculpture, about three feet high, depicts the Buddha in human form. The flowing drapery of his dress may have been influenced by the Greek toga, suggesting the multiethnic makeup of the region of Gandhara where it was made. (credit: “Buddha” by Purchase, Denise and Andrew Saul Gift, in honor of Maxwell K. Hearn, 2014/The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The pass connecting Kushan and China also allowed Buddhist monks to bring their religion to <OpenstaxTerm>China</OpenstaxTerm> in the second century. The most prominent example of this religious transmission was the activity of the Kushan monk <OpenstaxTerm>Lokaksema</OpenstaxTerm>, who traveled to China sometime in the 180s. Originally from Gandhara, Lokaksema was a Buddhist scholar who spent his time in China at the court of the Han dynasty, translating Mahayana Buddhist texts with his students. Once they were available in Chinese, these <OpenstaxEm>sutras,</OpenstaxEm> representing a genre of Buddhist scripture, could reach a wider audience. Thus Kushan’s links allowed Buddhism to grow both intentionally and organically, given that the presence of Buddhists on the area’s extensive trade routes surely led to its spread.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	After the death of the emperor <OpenstaxTerm>Vasudeva I</OpenstaxTerm> in the early third century, the Kushan Empire split into eastern and western halves that were ruled separately. Centered in modern-day Afghanistan, the western half of the empire fell under the control of the Sasanians in 248, who replaced the ruling dynasty with loyal chiefs referred to today as Indo-Sasanians. The Indo-Sasanian kingdoms were given partial autonomy, so they were self-governing for a time while also paying tribute to the Sasanians. The activities of Buddhist monasteries and the production of art appear to have persisted despite the political changes of this period.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>Gupta Empire</OpenstaxTerm> campaigned against Kushan’s eastern half, centered in the Punjab region of modern-day northern India, leading to its eventual absorption into this empire around 375. The final remnants of the Kushan Empire were eventually taken over by the Hephthalites (the White Huns) in the fifth century.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

10.4.1 The Kushan Empire

1 Understanding the Past

1.1 Developing a Global Perspective

1.1.1 World History as Preparation for Life after College

1.1.2 World History and Global Citizenship

1.1.3 Features of This Textbook

1.2 Primary Sources

1.2.1 Learning to Evaluate Documents and Images

1.2.2 Documentary Sources: Competing Narratives

1.2.3 Textual Sources: The Importance of Language

1.2.4 Hidden in History

1.3 Causation and Interpretation in History

1.3.1 Levels of Causation

1.3.2 Interpretation in History

2 Early Humans

2.1 Early Human Evolution and Migration

2.1.1 Human Evolution

2.1.2 Why Did Humans Move and Where Did They Go?

2.1.3 Early Human Technologies

2.2 People in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.1 Ice, Ice, and More Ice

2.2.2 Life in the Paleolithic Age

2.2.3 Diverse Paleolithic Peoples

2.3 The Neolithic Revolution

2.3.1 The Development of Agriculture

2.3.2 How Farming Changed the Human Experience

2.3.3 Neolithic Peoples

3 Early Civilizations and Urban Societies

3.1 Early Civilizations

3.1.1 Attributes of Early Civilizations

3.1.2 The First Urban Societies

3.2 Ancient Mesopotamia

3.2.1 The Rise and Eclipse of Sumer

3.2.2 The Rise of the World’s First Empire

3.2.3 Later Empires in Mesopotamia

3.2.4 Society and Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia

3.3 Ancient Egypt

3.3.1 The Origins of Ancient Egypt

3.3.2 The Age of Pyramid Building

3.3.3 A Second Age of Egyptian Greatness

3.4 The Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.1 The Origins of the Indus Valley Civilization

3.4.2 Trade, Writing, and Religion

3.4.3 The Era of Decline

4 The Near East

4.1 From Old Babylon to the Medes

4.1.1 Power Politics in the Near East

4.1.2 Foreign Affairs and Trade

4.1.3 Daily Life and the Family in the Near East

4.2 Egypt’s New Kingdom

4.2.1 The Hyksos in Egypt

4.2.2 The Pharaohs of the New Kingdom

4.2.3 Egypt’s Foreign Policy

4.3 The Persian Empire

4.3.1 The Rise of Persia

4.3.2 Darius I and the Reorganization of the Empire

4.3.3 Persian Culture and Daily Life

4.4 The Hebrews

4.4.1 The History of the Hebrews

4.4.2 The Culture of the Hebrews

5 Asia in Ancient Times

5.1 Ancient China

5.1.1 Prehistoric China

5.1.2 Early Dynastic China

5.1.3 The Zhou Dynasty

5.1.4 The Warring States Era and Qin Unification

5.2 The Steppes

5.2.1 The Nomadic Culture of the Steppes

5.2.2 Tribes, Confederations, and Settled Neighbors

5.3 Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia

5.3.1 Ancient Korea

5.3.2 Ancient Japan

5.4 Vedic India to the Fall of the Maurya Empire

5.4.1 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

5.4.2 The Aryans and Brahmanism

5.4.3 Buddhism

5.4.4 The Mauryan Empire

5.4.5 The Gupta Dynasty

6 Mediterranean Peoples

6.1 Early Mediterranean Peoples

6.1.1 The Late Bronze Age World

6.1.2 Phoenicians, Greeks, and Etruscans

6.2 Ancient Greece

6.2.1 Archaic Greece

6.2.2 Sparta and Athens

6.2.3 Classical Greece

6.3 The Hellenistic Era

6.3.1 The Kingdom of Macedon

6.3.2 Hellenistic Culture

6.4 The Roman Republic

6.4.1 The Foundation and Function of the Roman Republic

6.4.2 The Expansion of the Roman Republic

6.5 The Age of Augustus

6.5.1 The First Triumvirate

6.5.2 From Republic to Principate

7 Experiencing the Roman Empire

7.1 The Daily Life of a Roman Family

7.1.1 The Structure of Roman Families

7.1.2 A Day in the Life of a Roman Family

7.1.3 What Family Meant in Rome