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<p>In this lesson you will learn how to <strong>count up to 10 in Turkish</strong>, including halfs and quarters.</p>

    <p><strong>Half used after another numeral</strong> translates to <strong>buçuk</strong>, whereas <strong>half used without another numeral</strong> translates to <strong>yarım</strong>.</p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I want half a (loaf of) bread.</td>
            <td><strong>Yarım</strong> ekmek istiyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I want one and a half (loaves of) bread.</td>
            <td>Bir <strong>buçuk</strong> ekmek istiyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I want two and a half (loaves of) bread.</td>
            <td>İki <strong>buçuk</strong> ekmek istiyorum.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        Once we will have learned to count to ten, we will also be able to learn to tell our age, if we are younger than eleven at least.
        In Turkish, telling your age goes in a particularly peculiar way.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>How old are you?</td>
            <td>Kaç yaşındasın?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I am eight years old.</td>
            <td>Sekiz yaşındayım.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        So that second sentences literally means something like <strong>I am in the age of eight</strong>. I guess we should just remember how to say it, and not try to literally translate it.
    </p>

Counting to 10

Fruits

<p>
        Note that the days of the week are normally <strong>not written with capital letters</strong> in Turkish.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Sunday</td>
            <td>pazar</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Monday</td>
            <td>pazartesi</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Tuesday</td>
            <td>salı</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Wednesday</td>
            <td>çarşamba</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Thursday</td>
            <td>perşembe</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Friday</td>
            <td>cuma</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Saturday</td>
            <td>cumartesi</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        The words <strong>pazartesi</strong> and <strong>cumartesi</strong> are created from the words <strong>pazar</strong> and <strong>cuma</strong> combined with the word <strong>ertesi</strong>, which means <strong>(the) following</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>On saturday</strong>, <strong>on Sunday</strong> et cetera are often translated as <strong>cumartesi günü</strong>, <strong>pazar günü</strong> and so on.
        However, you can also omit the word <strong>günü</strong> and just stay <strong>cumartesi</strong> or <strong>pazar</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>On Wednesday I am working.</td>
            <td>Çarşamba (günü) çalışıyorum.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        Be careful not to translate <strong>on Wednesday</strong> with <strong>Çarşambada</strong>. <strong>Çarşambada</strong> is incorrect.
    </p>

The days of the week

<p>
        Note that the months of the year are normally <strong>not written with capital letters</strong> in Turkish.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>January</td>
            <td>ocak</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>February</td>
            <td>şubat</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>March</td>
            <td>mart</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>April</td>
            <td>nisan</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>May</td>
            <td>mayıs</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>June</td>
            <td>haziran</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>July</td>
            <td>temmuz</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>August</td>
            <td>ağustos</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>September</td>
            <td>eylül</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>October</td>
            <td>ekim</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>November</td>
            <td>kasım</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>December</td>
            <td>aralık</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

The months of the year

<p>
        Below you can see a table with the Turkish <strong>demonstratives</strong>. The English word <strong>this</strong>
        translates into Turkish as <strong>bu</strong>. The English word <strong>that</strong> has two translations into
        Turkish. <strong>Şu</strong> refers to objects that are too far away to use <strong>bu</strong>, but are in sight.
        <strong>O</strong> is normally used for referring to objects that are out of sight, but can always be used instead of <strong>şu</strong>.
    </p>
    <table class="ui celled definition table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>Nearby object</td>
				<td>Bu</td>
				<td>Bunlar</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Object further away in sight</td>
				<td>Şu</td>
				<td>Şunlar</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Further away or abstract</td>
				<td>O</td>
				<td>Onlar</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>
    <p>Note that the plural forms take the suffix <strong>lar</strong>. For some reason the buffer letter <strong>n</strong> is added before this ending.</p>
    <p>
        We can use demonstratives as nouns:
    </p>
    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>This is coffee.</td>
            <td>Bu kahve.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>That<sup>IN SIGHT</sup> is a cat.</td>
            <td>Şu bir kedi.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>That is a good idea.</td>
            <td>O iyi bir fikir.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>These are beautiful.</td>
            <td>Bunlar güzel.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Those<sup>IN SIGHT</sup> are ugly.</td>
            <td>Şunlar çirkin.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Those are big</td>
            <td>Onlar büyük.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>
    <p>
        Or we can use them in front of nouns as determiners:
    </p>
    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>This coffee is nice.</td>
            <td>Bu kahve güzel.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Those<sup>IN SIGHT</sup> cats are small.</td>
            <td><strong>Şu</strong> kediler küçük.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Those dogs are very big.</td>
            <td><strong>O</strong> köpekler çok büyük.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>
    <p>
        Note that if we use demonstratives as determiners in front of nouns, the demonstrative is always in its singular
        form, regardless of whether the noun is singular or plural.
    </p>

Demonstratives

<p>
        <strong>Adjectives</strong> are words which can modify a noun, such as the words <strong>small</strong> and <strong>hot</strong>.
        In Turkish we place adjectives in front of a noun to modify the noun, just as in English.
    </p>
    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr data-item="12265"></tr>
        <tr data-item="12266"></tr>
    </tbody></table>

Adjectives

Vegetables

Animals extended

<p>
        Below are some informal ways to say hello and goodbye to each other.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Hello.</td>
            <td>Merhaba.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Hello.</td>
            <td>Selam.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>See you.</td>
            <td>Görüşürüz.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Goodbye.</td>
            <td>Hoşça kal.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Goodbye.</td>
            <td>Güle güle.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        <strong>Güle güle</strong> is an abbreviation of <strong>Güle güle git</strong>, which literally means <strong>go laughing</strong>.
        Therefore <strong>güle güle</strong> is only said to the person(s) leaving.
        If you are leaving yourself, you shouldn't use <strong>güle güle</strong>.
		<strong>Hoşça kal</strong> literally means <strong>stay pleasantly</strong> and is therefore more appropriate to say to the person staying.
    </p>

    <p>
        Below are some more formal ways to say hello and goodbye to each other.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Good morning.</td>
            <td>Günaydın.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Good day.</td>
            <td>İyi günler.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Good evening.</td>
            <td>İyi akşamlar.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Good night.</td>
            <td>İyi geceler.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        <strong>Günaydın</strong> is only used for saying <strong>Hello</strong> and the other three can be used for saying both <strong>Hello</strong> and <strong>Goodbye</strong>.
        For saying <strong>Hello</strong> the last three alternatives are particularly polite, and most people use <strong>Merhaba</strong> instead, which is slightly less informal than saying <strong>Selam</strong>.
    </p>

Hello and goodbye

<p>
        Turkish has two words for saying <strong>black</strong>. They are <strong>siyah</strong> and <strong>kara</strong>. It also has two words for saying <strong>white</strong>. They are <strong>beyaz</strong> and <strong>ak</strong>. It also has two words for saying <strong>red</strong>. They are <strong>kırmızı</strong> and <strong>al</strong>.
        However, <strong>kırmızı</strong>, <strong>siyah</strong> and <strong>beyaz</strong> are far more commonly used than <strong>al</strong>, <strong>kara</strong> and <strong>ak</strong>. So normally you should use <strong>kırmızı</strong>, <strong>siyah</strong> and <strong>beyaz</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        You can make a color lighter by putting <strong>açık</strong> in front of it, and darker by putting <strong>koyu</strong> in front of it. So <strong>light blue</strong> is <strong>açık mavi</strong> and <strong>dark green</strong> is <strong>koyu yeşil</strong> in Turkish.
    </p>

Colors

<p>
        In this lesson you will learn the Turkish words for the members of your first degree family.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>family</td>
            <td>aile</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>father</td>
            <td>baba</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>mother</td>
            <td>anne</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>sibling</td>
            <td>kardeş</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>elder brother</td>
            <td>abi</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>elder sister</td>
            <td>abla</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>younger sister</td>
            <td>kız kardeş</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>younger brother</td>
            <td>erkek kardeş</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>son</td>
            <td>oğul</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>daughter</td>
            <td>kız</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

First degree family

<p>
	<strong>Nouns</strong> are words that refer to things and ideas.
	The words <strong>man</strong>, <strong>apple</strong>, <strong>freedom</strong> and <strong>Cleopatra</strong> are nouns.
</p>

<p>
	<strong>Articles</strong> are the words <strong>the</strong> and <strong>a</strong>, which we can place before most nouns.
	The English article <strong>a</strong> can be translated into Turkish by the word <strong>bir</strong>.
	The Turkish word <strong>bir</strong> also means <strong>one</strong> in English.
</p>

<table class="ui fixed celled table">
	<tbody><tr data-item="9916"></tr>
	<tr data-item="9917"></tr>
	</tbody></table>
<p>
	The English article <strong>the</strong> however, is not translated into Turkish.
	Therefore the Turkish word <strong>grup</strong> can either be translated into English by <strong>group</strong> or by <strong>the group</strong>.
</p>

<table class="ui fixed celled table">
	<tbody>
		<tr data-item="34691"></tr>
		<tr data-item="9907"></tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<p>
	Now click the big button below to practice this lesson and learn some words.
	In case you want to take a look at this lesson's vocabulary before practicing it, you can click the <strong>Exercises</strong> tab at the top of this page.
	However, this is not necessary in order to learn the lesson.
	During practicing, don't worry if you don't know a word yet.
	Just press <strong>Enter</strong> and you will see the correct answer.
</p>

Nouns and articles

<p>
        Now let's learn how to make Turkish nouns plural by adding the suffix <strong>ler</strong> or <strong>lar</strong> to the end of the noun.
        Whether we should use <strong>ler</strong> or <strong>lar</strong> depends on the last vowel in the noun, as described
        in the table below.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled table">
        <thead>
			<tr>
				<th>If the last vowel is</th>
				<th>use ler</th>
				<th>If the last vowel is</th>
				<th>use lar</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td><strong>e</strong></td>
				<td><strong>e</strong>vler</td>
				<td><strong>a</strong></td>
				<td>akş<strong>a</strong>mlar</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td><strong>i</strong></td>
				<td>kiş<strong>i</strong>ler</td>
				<td><strong>ı</strong></td>
				<td>kad<strong>ı</strong>nlar</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td><strong>ö</strong></td>
				<td>g<strong>ö</strong>zler</td>
				<td><strong>o</strong></td>
				<td>y<strong>o</strong>llar</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td><strong>ü</strong></td>
				<td>g<strong>ü</strong>nler</td>
				<td><strong>u</strong></td>
				<td>gr<strong>u</strong>plar</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        The vowels at the left are called <strong>front vowels</strong>, because they are produced in the front of the mouth.
        The vowels at the right are called <strong>back vowels</strong>, because they are produced in the back of the mouth.
    </p>

    <p>
        This rule where you use an <strong>e</strong> after a front vowel and an <strong>a</strong> after a back vowel appears
        in many places in the Turkish language, and is called <strong>minor vowel harmony</strong>. In case you are wondering,
        there is indeed also a major vowel harmony, about which you will learn later.
    </p>

    <p>
        Since we don't always want to write <strong>ler</strong> or <strong>lar</strong>, from now on we will write <strong>lEr</strong>, with a capital <strong>E</strong>, to mean <strong>ler</strong> or <strong>lar</strong>.
        We will use this capital <strong>E</strong> in all future suffixes in which minor vowel harmony applies, to mean <strong>e</strong> or <strong>a</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        You will see in the next lessons that the use of the plural suffix is often optional, even when we refer to multiple entities.
    </p>

Plural nouns and minor vowel harmony

<p>
        Below you see the <strong>personal pronouns</strong> of the English language and their translations into Turkish.
    </p>
    <p>
        The personal pronouns are divided into three types of person. The <strong>first person</strong> includes yourself,
        the <strong>second person</strong> includes the person you are addressing. And the <strong>third person</strong>
        refers neither to yourself, nor to the person you are addressing.
    </p>
    <p>
        The personal pronouns can also be divided between <strong>singular</strong> and <strong>plural</strong>, where a
        singular pronoun refers to a single person, thing or idea, whereas a plural pronoun refers to a multiple
        persons, things or ideas.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed definition table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>First person</td>
				<td>I</td>
				<td>we</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Second person</td>
				<td>you</td>
				<td>you / you all</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Third person</td>
				<td>he / she / it</td>
				<td>they</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        As you can see in the table below, in Turkish there are two ways to address the second person singular. <strong>Sen</strong> is a more
        informal form you use for addressing children, family and friends, while <strong>siz</strong> is a more polite form,
        which you use for addressing older people, teachers, your employer, and people you don't know. <strong>Siz</strong> is also
        used for addressing multiple people.
    </p>
    <p>
        In Turkish, there is no way to differentiate between <strong>he</strong>, <strong>she</strong> and <strong>it</strong>.
        The word <strong>o</strong> is used in all these cases.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed definition table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>First person</td>
				<td>ben</td>
				<td>biz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Second person</td>
				<td>sen / siz</td>
				<td>siz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Third person</td>
				<td>o</td>
				<td>onlar</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

Personal pronouns

<p>
        In Turkish, we can express the English verb <strong>to be</strong> by adding a suffix to the end of a noun or adjective.
        Which suffix we add depends on the subject the verb applies to.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled definition table">
        <thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>First person</td>
				<td>(y)İm</td>
				<td>(y)İz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Second person</td>
				<td>sİn</td>
				<td>sİnİz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Third person</td>
				<td></td>
				<td>(lEr)</td>
			</tr>
    	</tbody>
	</table>

    <p>
        The <strong>y</strong> is between parentheses as usual, since it is only present as a buffer letter to prevent two vowels from ending up next to each other.
    </p>

    <p>
        Below you can see the suffix for <strong>to be</strong> applied to several words. Here <strong>Kişiyim</strong>
        for example means <strong>I am a person</strong>, and <strong>Kadınız</strong> means <strong>We are women</strong>.
        You can guess the rest of the meanings yourself.
    </p>

    <p>
        Note that nouns ending in <strong>ç</strong>, <strong>p</strong>, <strong>t</strong> or <strong>k</strong> can change when followed by a vowel.
        Their last letter can change into <strong>c</strong>, <strong>b</strong>, <strong>d</strong> and <strong>ğ or g</strong> respectively.
        As a general rule, nouns consisting of multiple syllables change their last letter, and nouns consisting of single syllables don't.
        However, there are plenty of exceptions to this rule, which you will need to memorize.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled definition table">
        <thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Suffix</th>
				<th>Kişi</th>
				<th>Gül</th>
				<th>Çocuk</th>
				<th>Ağaç.</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>Ben</td>
				<td>(y)İm</td>
				<td>Kişiyim.</td>
				<td>Gülüm.</td>
				<td>Çocuğum.</td>
				<td>Ağacım.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Sen</td>
				<td>sİn</td>
				<td>Kişisin.</td>
				<td>Gülsün.</td>
				<td>Çocuksun.</td>
				<td>Ağaçsın.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>O</td>
				<td></td>
				<td>Kişi.</td>
				<td>Gül.</td>
				<td>Çocuk.</td>
				<td>Ağaç.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Biz</td>
				<td>(y)İz</td>
				<td>Kişiyiz.</td>
				<td>Gülüz.</td>
				<td>Çocuğuz.</td>
				<td>Ağacız.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Siz</td>
				<td>sİnİz</td>
				<td>Kişisiniz.</td>
				<td>Gülsünüz.</td>
				<td>Çocuksunuz.</td>
				<td>Ağaçsınız.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Onlar</td>
				<td>(lEr)</td>
				<td>Kişi(ler).</td>
				<td>Gül(ler).</td>
				<td>Çocuk(lar).</td>
				<td>Ağaç(lar).</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
	</table>

    <p>
        Again, the <strong>lEr</strong> at the end of the third person plural is not always present. We don't use <strong>lEr</strong> when speaking about inanimate objects.
        When referring to humans or animals, <strong>lEr</strong> is optional and is often not used when the subject is present in the sentence, already indicating plurality.
    </p>

The verb "to be"

<p>
        The Turkish word <strong>var</strong> means <strong>there is</strong> or <strong>there are</strong>. The Turkish word
        <strong>yok</strong> means <strong>there is not</strong> or <strong>there are not</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>There is coffee.</td>
            <td>Kahve var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is no tea.</td>
            <td>Çay yok.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is a cat in the tree.</td>
            <td>Ağaçta (bir) kedi var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There are dogs in the garden.</td>
            <td>Bahçede köpekler var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is no cat.</td>
            <td>(Bir) kedi yok.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There are no cats.</td>
            <td>Kedi(ler) yok.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        To make questions, we just place the question particle <strong>mİ</strong> after <strong>var</strong> or <strong>yok</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Is there no coffee?</td>
            <td>Kahve yok mu?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is there a cat in the tree?</td>
            <td>Ağaçta (bir) kedi var mı?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        If a question contains the word <strong>var</strong> or <strong>yok</strong>, you can often respond by simply saying <strong>var</strong> or <strong>yok</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Is there coffee?<br/>- There is.</td>
            <td>Kahve var mı?<br/>- Var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is there tea?<br/>- There is not.</td>
            <td>Çay var mı?<br/>- Yok.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is there no coffee?<br/>- There is.</td>
            <td>Kahve yok mu?<br/>- Var.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

There is and there are

<p>
        A verb is in its <strong>infinitive</strong> form in English if it starts with <strong>to</strong>, for example <strong>to read</strong> and <strong>to write</strong>.
        In Turkish, the infinitive form of all verbs ends in <strong>mEk</strong>.
        The part that comes before <strong>mEk</strong> is called the <strong>stem</strong> of the verb.
    </p>

    <p>
        Whether the verb ends in <strong>mek</strong> or <strong>mak</strong> is determined by the last vowel in the stem, in exactly the same way as the form of the plural suffix is determined by the last vowel which comes before it, according to <strong>minor vowel harmony</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th>Stem (front)</th>
				<th>Infinitive</th>
				<th></th>
				<th>Stem</th>
				<th>Infinitive</th>
				<th></th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>g<strong>e</strong>l</td>
				<td>g<strong>e</strong>lmek</td>
				<td>to come</td>
				<td>s<strong>a</strong>t</td>
				<td>s<strong>a</strong>tmak</td>
				<td>to sell</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>g<strong>i</strong>t</td>
				<td>g<strong>i</strong>tmek</td>
				<td>to go</td>
				<td>çal<strong>ı</strong>ş</td>
				<td>çal<strong>ı</strong>şmak</td>
				<td>to work</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>g<strong>ö</strong>r</td>
				<td>g<strong>ö</strong>rmek</td>
				<td>to see</td>
				<td>k<strong>o</strong>y</td>
				<td>k<strong>o</strong>ymak</td>
				<td>to put</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>yür<strong>ü</strong></td>
				<td>yür<strong>ü</strong>mek</td>
				<td>to walk</td>
				<td>ot<strong>u</strong>r</td>
				<td>ot<strong>u</strong>rmak</td>
				<td>to sit</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        Again, the vowels at the left are called <strong>front vowels</strong>, because they are produced in the front of the mouth,
        and the vowels at the right are called <strong>back vowels</strong>, because they are produced in the back of the mouth.
    </p>

    <p>
        In this lesson you will learn a collection of verbs, and in the next lessons you will learn how to make your first sentences using these verbs.
    </p>

The infinitive and the stem

<p>
        Besides the informal singular form, Turkish has two different forms of the imperative.
        The second form is used to address multiple persons, and can also be used to formally address a single person,
        for example if the person is your superior, older than you, or a stranger. It consists of the stem plus a suffix,
        which depends on the last vowel in this stem.
    </p>

    <p>
        In total there are three forms to give orders to a person using the imperative form:
    </p>

    <ol>
        <li>The first form is used for addressing a single person informally</li>
        <li>The second form is used for addressing a single person politely or multiple people informally</li>
        <li>The third form is used mainly in official language for addressing a single person or multiple people <strong>very</strong> politely</li>
    </ol>

    <p>
        The three forms all have their own grammar:
    </p>

    <ol>
        <li>The first form consists of the verb stem</li>
        <li>The second form consists of the verb stem + <strong>(y)İn</strong></li>
        <li>The third form consists of the verb stem + <strong>(y)İnİz</strong></li>
    </ol>

    <p>
        The <strong>İ</strong>'s are written with capital letters above, because they change depending on the last vowel in the stem:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled definition table">
        <tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>Last vowel in stem</td>
				<td><strong>i</strong> or <strong>e</strong></td>
				<td><strong>ı</strong> or <strong>a</strong></td>
				<td><strong>u</strong> or <strong>o</strong></td>
				<td><strong>ü</strong> or <strong>ö</strong></td>
        	</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Suffix</td>
				<td>(y)<strong>i</strong>n / (y)<strong>i</strong>n<strong>i</strong>z</td>
				<td>(y)<strong>ı</strong>n / (y)<strong>ı</strong>n<strong>ı</strong>z</td>
				<td>(y)<strong>u</strong>n / (y)<strong>u</strong>n<strong>u</strong>z</td>
				<td>(y)<strong>ü</strong>n / (y)<strong>ü</strong>n<strong>ü</strong>z</td>
			</tr>
    	</tbody>
	</table>

    <p>
        The <strong>y</strong> is between parentheses here, because it is only present in case the stem ends in a vowel.
        It acts as a buffer letter to prevent two vowels ending up next to each other.
    </p>

    <p>Beneath you can see some examples of the three forms:</p>

    <table class="ui celled table">
        <thead>
			<tr>
				<th>English</th>
				<th>First form</th>
				<th>Second form</th>
				<th>Third form</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>Come.</td>
				<td>Gel.</td>
				<td>Gel<strong>in</strong>.</td>
				<td>Gel<strong>iniz</strong>.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Buy tea.</td>
				<td>Çay al.</td>
				<td>Çay al<strong>ın</strong>.</td>
				<td>Çay al<strong>ınız</strong>.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Walk.</td>
				<td>Yürü.</td>
				<td>Yürü<strong>yün</strong>.</td>
				<td>Yürü<strong>yünüz</strong>.</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Read a book.</td>
				<td>(Bir) kitap oku.</td>
				<td>(Bir) kitap oku<strong>yun</strong>.</td>
				<td>(Bir) kitap oku<strong>yunuz</strong>.</td>
			</tr>
    	</tbody>
	</table>

    <p>
        The way in which the <strong>İ</strong> changes between <strong>i</strong>, <strong>ı</strong>, <strong>u</strong> and <strong>ü</strong>, depending on the preceding vowel, is called the <strong>major vowel harmony</strong>.
        Major vowel harmony will recur again and again in the Turkish language and might seem difficult at first, but you will quickly learn to use it with ease.
    </p>

The imperative and major vowel harmony

<p>The <strong>present continuous</strong> is used to describe an action that is currently going on. To form the present continuous of a verb, do the following:</p>

<ol>
	<li>Find the stem by dropping <strong>mEk</strong> from the end of the verb.</li>
	<li>If the last letter of the stem is a vowel, drop it.</li>
	<li>Add the ending for the present continuous, depending on the person who is performing the action.</li>
</ol>

<table class="ui celled definition table">
	<thead>
		<tr>
			<th></th>
			<th>Singular</th>
			<th>Plural</th>
		</tr>
	</thead>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>First person</td>
			<td>İyorum</td>
			<td>İyoruz</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Second person</td>
			<td>İyorsun</td>
			<td>İyorsunuz</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Third person</td>
			<td>İyor</td>
			<td>İyor(lar)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<p>
	The <strong>lar</strong> ending is optional for animate beings and is not used for objects.
	The <strong>lar</strong> ending is most often used when the subjects are humans.
</p>

<table class="ui celled table">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>The books are falling.</td>
			<td>Kitaplar düşüyor.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>The cats are falling.</td>
			<td>Kediler düşüyor(lar).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>The children are falling.</td>
			<td>Çocuklar düşüyor(lar).</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<p>
	See the table below for a reminder of how to replace <strong>İ</strong> according to major vowel harmony.
</p>

<table class="ui celled table">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>If the last vowel after step 2 is</td>
			<td><strong>i</strong> or <strong>e</strong></td>
			<td><strong>ı</strong> or <strong>a</strong></td>
			<td><strong>u</strong> or <strong>o</strong></td>
			<td><strong>ü</strong> or <strong>ö</strong></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>replace İ by</td>
			<td><strong>i</strong></td>
			<td><strong>ı</strong></td>
			<td><strong>u</strong></td>
			<td><strong>ü</strong></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<p>
	Below are some examples for creating the present continuous:
</p>

<table class="ui celled table">
	<thead>
		<tr>
			<th>English</th>
			<th>Infinitive</th>
			<th>Stem</th>
			<th>Drop trailing vowel</th>
			<th>Personal ending</th>
		</tr>
	</thead>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>I am walking.</td>
			<td>yürümek</td>
			<td>yürü</td>
			<td>yür</td>
			<td>Yürüyorum.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>You are drinking.</td>
			<td>içmek</td>
			<td>iç</td>
			<td>iç</td>
			<td>İçiyorsun.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>She is saying.</td>
			<td>söylemek</td>
			<td>söyle</td>
			<td>söyl</td>
			<td>Söylüyor.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>We are selling.</td>
			<td>satmak</td>
			<td>sat</td>
			<td>sat</td>
			<td>Satıyoruz.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>You are sitting.</td>
			<td>oturmak</td>
			<td>otur</td>
			<td>otur</td>
			<td>Oturuyorsunuz.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>They are reading.</td>
			<td>okumak</td>
			<td>oku</td>
			<td>ok</td>
			<td>Okuyor(lar).</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

<p>
	As you can see, we can make sentences in Turkish without using the personal pronouns <strong>ben</strong>, <strong>sen</strong>, etc.
	If we do use personal pronouns, extra emphasis is added to the person performing the action.
</p>

<p>
	With the verbs <strong>demek</strong> and <strong>yemek</strong>, there is no vowel left after taking the stem and dropping the trailing vowel.
	In this case, we use the vowel <strong>i</strong>.
</p>

<table class="ui celled table">
	<thead>
		<tr>
			<th>English</th>
			<th>Infinitive</th>
			<th>Stem</th>
			<th>Drop trailing vowel</th>
			<th>Personal ending</th>
		</tr>
	</thead>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>I am saying.</td>
			<td>demek</td>
			<td>de</td>
			<td>d</td>
			<td>Diyorum.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>You are eating.</td>
			<td>yemek</td>
			<td>ye</td>
			<td>y</td>
			<td>Yiyorsun.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

The present continuous

<p>
        In English we express location using words such as <strong>in</strong>, <strong>at</strong>, <strong>on</strong> and <strong>by</strong>.
        In Turkish the <strong>locative case suffix</strong> is used to express location.
        The locative case suffix is <strong>DE</strong> and is added to the end of a noun.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>in the park</td>
                <td>park<strong>ta</strong></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>at home</td>
                <td>ev<strong>de</strong></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>on the table</td>
                <td>masa<strong>da</strong></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>by the river</td>
                <td>nehir<strong>de</strong></td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        The suffix <strong>DE</strong> obeys what we will call <strong>suffix consonant harmony</strong>, which determines whether the first consonant in the suffix is <strong>voiced</strong> or <strong>voiceless</strong> depending on the voicedness of the letter that comes before it.
        If the sound before the suffix is <strong>voiceless</strong> the suffix starts with a <strong>t</strong>. If the sound before the suffix is <strong>voiced</strong> the suffix starts with a <strong>d</strong>.
        A sound is voiced when our vocal cords are vibrating while producing the sound. You can feel whether your vocal cords are vibrating by touching your throat while producing sounds.
    </p>
    <p>
        All vowels are voiced. Beneath you can see which consonants are voiceless and which are voiced.
    </p>
    <table class="ui celled definition table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>Voiceless</td>
                <td>ç</td>
                <td>k</td>
                <td>t</td>
                <td>p</td>
                <td>s</td>
                <td>f</td>
                <td>h</td>
                <td>ş</td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Voiced</td>
                <td>c</td>
                <td>g</td>
                <td>d</td>
                <td>b</td>
                <td>z</td>
                <td>v</td>
                <td></td>
                <td></td>
                <td>ğ</td>
                <td>j</td>
                <td>l</td>
                <td>m</td>
                <td>n</td>
                <td>r</td>
                <td>y</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>
    <p>
        Actually, <strong>ğ</strong> is not voiced, but because it extends the sound of the preceding vowel, it behaves as a voiced consonant.
    </p>
    <p>
        In the table at the top <strong>park</strong> ends in a <strong>k</strong> which is voiceless and therefore we added <strong>ta</strong>,
        while <strong>ev</strong>, <strong>masa</strong> and <strong>nehir</strong> all end in a voiced sound and therefore we added <strong>dE</strong>.
    </p>
    <p>
        A mnemonic device to remember all voiceless consonants is the sentence <strong>Fe PaŞa ÇoK HaSTa</strong>, which contains all voiceless consonants.
        Meanwhile, remember that <strong>all vowels are voiced</strong>.
    </p>

The locative case suffix

<p>
        If a sentence has both a <strong>subject</strong> and a <strong>direct object</strong> the subject is the actor and the direct object is acted upon.
        For example in the sentence <strong>He is reading a book</strong>, <strong>He</strong> is the subject, because <strong>He</strong> is doing the reading,
        while <strong>a book</strong> is the direct object, because it is the thing being read. It is acted upon by the subject.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th>Sentence</th>
                <th>Finding the subject</th>
                <th>Subject</th>
                <th>Finding the object</th>
                <th>Direct object</th>
            </tr>
        </thead>
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>He is reading a book.</td>
                <td>Who is reading?</td>
                <td>He</td>
                <td>What is he reading?</td>
                <td>a book</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>I am drinking tea.</td>
                <td>Who is drinking?</td>
                <td>I</td>
                <td>What am I drinking?</td>
                <td>tea</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>We are eating the soup.</td>
                <td>Who is eating?</td>
                <td>We</td>
                <td>What are we eating?</td>
                <td>the soup</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        In Turkish, the direct object gets a suffix when it is <strong>definite</strong>.
        The direct object is definite when it refers to a specific object or a specific collection of objects that is known to the addressee (the addressee is the person whom the sentence is directed to).
    </p>
    <p>
        In the sentences above <strong>a book</strong> is not definite, because the addressee doesn't know which book the subject is reading.
        The direct object <strong>tea</strong> is also not definite, since the addressee only knows that I am drinking tea, not which tea I am drinking.
        In the last sentence however, <strong>the soup</strong> is definite. The addressee here knows which soup we are talking about, for example because
        it has already been mentioned before in the conversation.
    </p>
    <p>
        In Turkish, the <strong>definite direct object</strong> receives the <strong>accusative case suffix</strong>, which is <strong>(y)İ</strong>.
        The <strong>y</strong> is between parenthesis again, since it is only used when the direct object ends in a vowel, acting as a buffer letter to prevent two consecutive vowels.
    </p>
    <p>
        Now let's translate the sentences above. Note that in Turkish you don't eat soup, but you drink it.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>He is reading a book.</td>
                <td>(O) (bir) kitap okuyor.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>I am drinking tea.</td>
                <td>(Ben) çay içiyorum.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>We are eating the soup.</td>
                <td>(Biz) çorba<strong>yı</strong> içiyoruz.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        See the table below for a reminder of how to replace <strong>İ</strong> according to major vowel harmony.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>If the last vowel of the object is</td>
            <td><strong>i</strong> or <strong>e</strong></td>
            <td><strong>ı</strong> or <strong>a</strong></td>
            <td><strong>u</strong> or <strong>o</strong></td>
            <td><strong>ü</strong> or <strong>ö</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>replace İ by</td>
            <td><strong>i</strong></td>
            <td><strong>ı</strong></td>
            <td><strong>u</strong></td>
            <td><strong>ü</strong></td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        <strong>Proper nouns</strong> receive an apostrophe before a case suffix.
        Proper nouns are names referring to specific entities such as persons, corporations, cities and countries.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>You are listening to Selma.</td>
                <td>(Siz) Selma'yı dinliyorsunuz.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>They love Istanbul.</td>
                <td>(Onlar) İstanbul'u seviyorlar.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>He is looking for Mehmet.</td>
                <td>(O) Mehmet'i arıyor.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>You are drinking the water.</td>
                <td>(Sen) suyu içiyorsun.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

The accusative case suffix

<p>
        The <strong>dative case suffix</strong> is <strong>(y)E</strong>.
        The <strong>dative case suffix</strong> is often used to signify motion towards something.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>I am walking towards the table.</td>
                <td>(Ben) masa<strong>ya</strong> yürüyorum.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>I am coming home.</td>
                <td>(Ben) ev<strong>e</strong> geliyorum.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        A lot of verbs that take an object with the dative case suffix, can take an object with the accusative case suffix as well.
        The object with the accusative case suffix is called the <strong>direct object</strong> and the object with the dative case suffix is called the <strong>indirect object</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>I am giving an apple to Selma.</td>
                <td>(Ben) Selma'ya (bir) elma veriyorum.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Put the apple on the table.</td>
                <td>Elmayı masaya koy.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        As you can see again above, proper nouns receive an apostrophe before a case suffix.
    </p>

    <p>
        There are also verbs that only take an <strong>indirect object</strong>, and there is no general rule when to use which suffix.
        For example, in the sentence below you can rationalize that bakmak takes a dative case suffix because you look <strong>at</strong> the cat, so there is a kind of motion towards.
        However, this doesn't work as well for the second sentence. The verb <strong>to believe</strong> definitely looks as if it needs a <strong>direct object</strong>, but it needs an <strong>indirect object</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        You will therefore have to memorize for each verb, which case suffix you need to use with its object.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>Look at the cat.</td>
                <td>Kediye bak.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>I believe the man.</td>
                <td>Adama inanıyorum.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

The dative case suffix

<p>
        Nouns ending in <strong>ç</strong>, <strong>p</strong>, <strong>t</strong> or <strong>k</strong> can change their last consonant when followed by a vowel.
        Their last consonant changes into <strong>c</strong>, <strong>b</strong>, <strong>d</strong> and <strong>ğ</strong> respectively for each of these cases.
        As a general rule, nouns consisting of multiple syllables change their last consonant, and nouns consisting of single syllables don't.
    </p>

    <p>
        Below you can see how <strong>ağaç</strong>, <strong>kitap</strong>, <strong>yoğurt</strong> and <strong>çocuk</strong> change when they are followed by a vowel.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>We are walking to the tree.</td>
                <td>(Biz) ağa<strong>c</strong>a yürüyoruz.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>I am reading the book.</td>
                <td>(Ben) kita<strong>b</strong>ı okuyorum.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Eat the yogurt.</td>
                <td>Yoğur<strong>d</strong>u ye.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>He is looking after the child.</td>
                <td>(O) çocu<strong>ğ</strong>a bakıyor.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        When the <strong>k</strong> is preceded by an <strong>n</strong>, as in the word <strong>renk</strong> which means <strong>color</strong>,
        the <strong>k</strong> is replaced with a <strong>g</strong> instead of a <strong>ğ</strong> when it is followed by a vowel.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>Look at the color.</td>
                <td>Ren<strong>g</strong>e bak.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        Since these changes are irregular, you will have to remember for every noun that ends in a <strong>ç</strong>, <strong>p</strong>, <strong>t</strong> or <strong>k</strong>
        whether this letter changes or not when a vowel follows it.
    </p>

Final consonant harmony

<p>
        To make a verb negative we just add <strong>mE</strong> after the stem, and after that we can conjugate the verbs as usual.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th>gelmek</th>
                <th>okumak</th>
                <th>yemek</th>
                <th>bakmak</th>
            </tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>gel<strong>me</strong>mek</td>
                <td>oku<strong>ma</strong>mak</td>
                <td>ye<strong>me</strong>mek</td>
                <td>bak<strong>ma</strong>mak</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        The negative form of the imperative looks like this:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed definition table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th></th>
                <th>Don't go.</th>
                <th>Don't eat the apple.</th>
            </tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>First form</td>
                <td>Gitme.</td>
                <td>Elmayı yeme.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Second form</td>
                <td>Gitmeyin</td>
                <td>Elmayı yemeyin.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Third form</td>
                <td>Gitmeyiniz.</td>
                <td>Elmayı yemeyiniz.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        And the negative form of the present continuous looks like this:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed definition table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th></th>
                <th>You are not looking.</th>
                <th>He is not listening.</th>
            </tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>Infinitive</td>
                <td>bakmamak</td>
                <td>dinlememek</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Stem</td>
                <td>bakma</td>
                <td>dinleme</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Drop trailing vowel</td>
                <td>bakm</td>
                <td>dinlem</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Add personal ending</td>
                <td>Bakmıyorsunuz.</td>
                <td>Dinlemiyor.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

Negative verbs

<p>
	We can ask questions in the present continuous by using the question particle <strong>mİ</strong>, which is conjugated based on the person performing the action.
</p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled definition table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>First person</td>
				<td>İyor muyum?</td>
				<td>İyor muyuz?</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Second person</td>
				<td>İyor musun?</td>
				<td>İyor musunuz?</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Third person</td>
				<td>İyor mu?</td>
				<td>İyor(lar) mı?</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        Note that in the third person plural, the plural suffix comes after <strong>yor</strong> and not after the question particle.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Are you going?</td>
            <td>(Sen) gidiyor musun?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is she selling the house?</td>
            <td>(O) evi satıyor mu?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Are they walking?</td>
            <td>(Onlar) yürüyor(lar) mı?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>Negative questions can be constructed in the same way from the negative version of the verb.</p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Aren't you going?</td>
            <td>(Sen) gitmiyor musun?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Isn't she selling the house?</td>
            <td>(O) evi satmıyor mu?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Aren't they walking?</td>
            <td>(Onlar) yürümüyor(lar) mı?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>
<p>
	Even though both <strong>Onlar</strong> and <strong>lar</strong> are in parentheses,
	you cannot skip them both.
</p>

Questions in the present continuous

<p>
        We can ask questions with the verb <strong>to be</strong> by placing the question particle <strong>mİ</strong> with the personal ending after the noun or adjective.
        The negative counterpart of the question is made by inserting the word değil before the question particle.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled definition table">
        <thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>First person</td>
				<td>[değil] mİyİm</td>
				<td>[değil] mİyİz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Second person</td>
				<td>[değil] mİsİn</td>
				<td>[değil] mİsİnİz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Third person</td>
				<td>[değil] mİ</td>
				<td>[değil](lEr) mİ</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
	</table>

    <p>
        Note that in the third person plural, the plural suffix <strong>lEr</strong> comes behind <strong>değil</strong> or behind the noun or adjective, and not behind the question particle.
        The plural suffix is only used if the subjects are human, and even then it is optional.
    </p>

    <p>
        You can see some example sentences below:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Am I a child?</td>
            <td>(Ben) (bir) çocuk muyum?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Aren't you rich?</td>
            <td>(Sen) zengin değil misin?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is it a rose?</td>
            <td>O bir gül mü?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Aren't we poor?</td>
            <td>(Biz) fakir değil miyiz?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Are you ok?</td>
            <td>(Siz) iyi misiniz?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Are they crazy?</td>
            <td>Onlar deli(ler) mi?</td>
        </tr>
	     <tr>
            <td>Are they crazy?</td>
            <td>Deliler mi?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Aren't they expensive?</td>
            <td>(Onlar) pahalı değil(ler) mi?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Questions with the verb "to be"

<p>
        The <strong>imperative</strong> form of a verb is used to order someone to do something. For example,
        in the sentence "Go to school." the verb <strong>to go</strong> is in the imperative form.
    </p>

    <p>
        In Turkish, the imperative has three forms, depending on the level of politeness and the number of people you are addressing.
    </p>

    <p>
        The first form is informal and used to address a single person. This form is identical to the stem of the verb.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th>English imperative</th>
                <th>Turkish imperative (first form)</th>
            </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
            	<tr data-item="9986"></tr>
            	<tr data-item="9982"></tr>
            	<tr data-item="12185"></tr>
            	<tr data-item="12187"></tr>
            	<tr data-item="12188"></tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        You will learn about the other forms in the next lesson.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th>English imperative</th>
                <th>Turkish imperative (first form)</th>
            </tr>
        </thead>
        <tbody>
            <tr data-item="12188"></tr>
            <tr data-item="15577"></tr>
            <tr data-item="15578"></tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        As you can see above we do not necessarily need to use <strong>bir</strong> where we encounter <strong>a</strong> or <strong>an</strong> in English.
        However, if we do not use the word <strong>bir</strong>, the sentence can become ambiguous, as you can also see above.
        This is because <strong>we normally do not use the plural suffix for indefinite plural objects</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        Indefinite objects are general non-specific objects, whereas definite objects are specific objects, such as for example <strong>the books</strong>, or <strong>these books</strong>.
        You will learn how to say <strong>read the books</strong> in Turkish in a later chapter about the accusative case suffix.
    </p>

The imperative

<p>
        The verbs <strong>yemek</strong> and <strong>demek</strong> change the <strong>e</strong> in their stem to an <strong>i</strong> when followed by a <strong>y</strong>:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th>English</th>
                <th>First form</th>
                <th>Second form</th>
                <th>Third form</th>
            </tr>
        </thead>
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>Eat.</td>
                <td>Ye.</td>
                <td>Y<strong>i</strong>yin.</td>
                <td>Y<strong>i</strong>yiniz.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Say hello.</td>
                <td>Merhaba de.</td>
                <td>Merhaba d<strong>i</strong>yin.</td>
                <td>Merhaba d<strong>i</strong>yiniz.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        As a reminder, here are the functions of the three forms of the imperative again:
    </p>

    <ol>
        <li>The first form is used for addressing a single person informally</li>
        <li>The second form is used for addressing a single person politely or multiple people informally</li>
        <li>The third form is used for addressing a single person in a very formal way or multiple people politely</li>
    </ol>
<p>
	While <strong>yemek</strong> can be both <em>transitive</em> and <em>intransitive</em>, <strong>demek</strong> is always transitive. What do those mean, you ask?</p>
<p> Transitivity is a linguistic term that is related to a verb's relation with objects. Some verbs take one object (e.g "I love <em>you</em>."), some take two (e.g
	"I gave <em>John</em><sub>1</sub> <em>a book</em><sub>2</sub>.",
	and some take none (e.g "I ran."). Verbs that do take an object (or two objects) are called transitive. Verbs that do not take objects are called intransitive.
</p>
<p>
    In the sentence "I gave John a book", "John" is the <strong>indirect object</strong> and "a book" is the <strong>direct object</strong>.
    You will learn more about these terms in later lessons.
</p>

The imperative forms of yemek and demek

<p>
        The <strong>present continuous</strong> is normally used to describe an action that is currently going on.
        However, it is also possible to use the present continuous to describe what you (or someone else) intends to do in the future, as long as you use a word that specifies the time, such as <strong>tomorrow</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>They are coming tomorrow.</td>
                <td>Yarın geliyor(lar).</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Tomorrow I am working.</td>
                <td>Yarın çalışıyorum.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        Moreover, the present continuous can be used to describe things that happen routinely, as long as the sentence contains a word that specifies the fact that it is happening routinely, such as <strong>always</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>You are working every day.</td>
                <td>(Sen) her gün çalışıyorsun.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>He always farts.</td>
                <td>(O) her zaman osuruyor.</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

Different uses of the present continuous

<p>
        In the verbs <strong>gitmek</strong>, <strong>etmek</strong>, <strong>tatmak</strong> and <strong>gütmek</strong>, the <strong>t</strong> at the end of the stem changes into a <strong>d</strong> when it is followed by a vowel.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td>I am going home.</td>
            <td>(Ben) eve gi<strong>d</strong>iyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Please taste the orange.</td>
            <td>Lütfen portakalı ta<strong>d</strong>ın.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>He is herding the sheep.</td>
            <td>(O) koyunları gü<strong>d</strong>üyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>She is dancing.</td>
            <td>(O) dans e<strong>d</strong>iyor.</td>
        </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        The verb <strong>etmek</strong> sometimes sneaks up as part of a verb, such as in <strong>seyretmek</strong> and <strong>hissetmek</strong>.
        <strong>Seyretmek</strong> is a combination of <strong>seyir</strong>, which means <strong>observation</strong>, and <strong>etmek</strong> which means <strong>to do</strong> or <strong>to make</strong>.
        <strong>Hissetmek</strong> is a combination of <strong>his</strong>, which means <strong>feeling</strong>, and the verb <strong>etmek</strong>.
    </p>
    <p>
        When the verb <strong>etmek</strong> appears in a verb like this, the <strong>t</strong> at the end of the stem also changes into a <strong>d</strong> when it is followed by a vowel.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
        <tr>
            <td>I feel good.</td>
            <td>(Ben) iyi hisse<strong>d</strong>iyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>We are watching television.</td>
            <td>(Biz) televizyon seyre<strong>d</strong>iyoruz.</td>
        </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

Irregular verbs

<p>
    The Turkish alphabet is not hard to learn. It looks like the English alphabet, but there are some differences:
</p>

<ul>
    <li>The Turkish alphabet does not contain the letters <strong>q</strong>, <strong>w</strong> or <strong>x</strong></li>
    <li>It also has some letters the English alphabet doesn't have: <strong>ç</strong>, <strong>ğ</strong>, <strong>ı</strong>, <strong>ö</strong>, <strong>ş</strong> and <strong>ü</strong></li>
</ul>

<p>The complete Turkish alphabet contains <strong>29 characters</strong> which you can see below.</p>

<table class="ui small table">
    <thead>
        <tr>
            <td>a</td>
            <td>b</td>
            <td>c</td>
            <td><strong>ç</strong></td>
            <td>d</td>
            <td>e</td>
            <td>f</td>
            <td>g</td>
            <td><strong>ğ</strong></td>
            <td>h</td>
            <td><strong>ı</strong></td>
            <td>i</td>
            <td>j</td>
            <td>k</td>
            <td>l</td>
            <td>m</td>
            <td>n</td>
            <td>o</td>
            <td><strong>ö</strong></td>
            <td>p</td>
            <td>r</td>
            <td>s</td>
            <td><strong>ş</strong></td>
            <td>t</td>
            <td>u</td>
            <td><strong>ü</strong></td>
            <td>v</td>
            <td>y</td>
            <td>z</td>
        </tr>
    </thead>
</table>

<p>
    Since the special characters are difficult to type if you don't have a Turkish keyboard, <strong>you can type special characters by typing the normal character that looks like it followed by pressing the Tab key</strong>.
</p>

<table class="ui celled table">
    <tbody><tr>
        <td><strong>Type this letter and then a [Tab]</strong></td>
        <td>c</td>
        <td>g</td>
        <td>i</td>
        <td>I</td>
        <td>o</td>
        <td>s</td>
        <td>u</td>
    </tr>
    <tr>
        <td><strong>and it will change to this</strong></td>
        <td>ç</td>
        <td>ğ</td>
        <td>ı</td>
        <td>İ</td>
        <td>ö</td>
        <td>ş</td>
        <td>ü</td>
    </tr>
</tbody></table>

<p>
    In the image below you see that there are special characters displayed below the place where you enter your answer.
    You can also click on these characters if you forgot how to type them, and you can hover over them to see how to type them.
</p>

<img src="https://elonstorage.blob.core.windows.net/file/1018424.png" alt="Turkish special character keyboard" />

The Turkish alphabet

<p>
        In this lesson you will learn that the word <strong>bir</strong> can either mean <strong>a/an</strong> or <strong>one</strong> depending on its position.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
			<tr data-item="9925"></tr>
        	<tr data-item="9924"></tr>
    	</tbody>
	</table>

    <p>So if we want to say <strong>a big apple</strong> we will have to put the article after the adjective, unlike in English.</p>

    <p>
        Just as the word <strong>very</strong> in English, we can use the word <strong>çok</strong> in Turkish to amplify the adjective.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody>
			<tr data-item="9923"></tr>
        	<tr data-item="9926"></tr>
    	</tbody>
	</table>

The indefinite article and the number one

<p>
        The negative form of <strong>to be</strong> is created by adding the word <strong>değil</strong> after the noun
        or adjective you want to negate. The word <strong>değil</strong> conjugates in the same way as the noun or adjective
        would in the positive form.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I am not at the hotel.</td>
            <td>(Ben) otelde değilim.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>You are not stupid.</td>
            <td>(Sen) aptal değilsin.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>This is not right.</td>
            <td>Bu doğru değil.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>We are not intelligent.</td>
            <td>(Biz) akıllı değiliz.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>You are not very old.</td>
            <td>(Siz) çok yaşlı değilsiniz.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>These books are not old.</td>
            <td>Bu kitaplar eski değil.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        You can see an overview of the conjugations below:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled definition table">
        <thead>
            <tr>
                <th></th>
                <th>Singular</th>
                <th>Plural</th>
            </tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
            <tr>
                <td>First person</td>
                <td>değilim</td>
                <td>değiliz</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Second person</td>
                <td>değilsin</td>
                <td>değilsiniz</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
                <td>Third person</td>
                <td>değil</td>
                <td>değil(ler)</td>
            </tr>
        </tbody>
    </table>

The negative form of "to be"

<p>
        Now let's learn the basic question words in Turkish, so that we can make a wider variety of sentences.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td><strong>What</strong> are you doing?</td>
            <td><strong>Ne</strong> yapıyorsun?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>How</strong> is the breakfast?</td>
            <td>Kahvaltı <strong>nasıl</strong>?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>Who</strong> is she?</td>
            <td>O <strong>kim</strong>?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>Which</strong> bread do you want?</td>
            <td><strong>Hangi</strong> ekmeği istiyorsun?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>When</strong> are they coming?</td>
            <td><strong>Ne zaman</strong> geliyorlar?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>How many</strong> do you want?</td>
            <td><strong>Kaç tane</strong> istiyorsunuz?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>How much</strong> water do you want?</td>
            <td><strong>Ne kadar</strong> su istiyorsun?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        Note that when a question word is present in the sentence, the question particle <strong>mİ</strong> is absent.
        The sentences <strong>Ne yapıyor musun?</strong> and <strong>O kim mi?</strong> are grammatically wrong.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>How many</strong> can both be translated by <strong>kaç</strong> and by <strong>kaç tane</strong>.
        The word <strong>tane</strong> doesn't add any meaning, but many Turkish speakers add it after numbers and after the word <strong>kaç</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        Finally, note that if you use a direct object after the word <strong>hangi</strong>, that object is definitive and receives the accusative case suffix.
    </p>

Question words

<p>
        Now let's look at a basic conversation in Turkish:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Merhaba. Ben George.</td>
            <td>Hello. I am George.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>- Merhaba George. Ben de Zeynep.</td>
            <td>- Hello George. I am Zeynep.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Memnun oldum, Zeynep.</td>
            <td>Pleased to meet you, Zeynep.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>- Ben de memnun oldum.</td>
            <td>- I am also pleased to meet you.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Nasılsın?</td>
            <td>How are you?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>- Iyiyim. Teşekkür ederim. Ya sen?</td>
            <td>- I am fine. Thank you. And you?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Ben de iyiyim. Sağ ol.</td>
            <td>I am also fine. Thanks.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>- İstanbul'da ne yapıyorsun?</td>
            <td>- What are you doing in Istanbul?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Üniversitede okuyorum. Ya sen?</td>
            <td>I am studying at the university. And you?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>- Ben de üniversitede okuyorum.</td>
            <td>- I am also studying at the university.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Peki, ben gidiyorum.</td>
            <td>Well, I am going.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>- Tamam. Görüşürüz.</td>
            <td>- Okay. See you.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Görüşürüz.</td>
            <td>See you.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        The word <strong>dE</strong> means <strong>too</strong> or <strong>also</strong> and is used two times in the conversation.
        Note that this word changes according to minor vowel harmony depending on the preceding vowel, even though there is a space before <strong>dE</strong>.
        Don't confuse the word <strong>dE</strong> with the locative case suffix, which is written attached to the word it follows.
		Notice that <strong>dE</strong> can also mean <strong>as for me</strong> in conversational contexts.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>Memnun oldum</strong> literally means <strong>I became pleased</strong>.
        <strong>Oldum</strong> is a verb in the past tense, which you will learn to use later.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>Teşekkür ederim</strong> literally means <strong>I thank (you)</strong>.
        <strong>Ederim</strong> is a verb in the simple present, which you will also learn to use later.
        The form <strong>teşekkür ederiz</strong>, meaning <strong>we thank (you)</strong>, can be used if you want to thank someone on behalf of multiple people.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>Sağ ol</strong> and the slightly more polite <strong>sağ olun</strong> literally mean <strong>be alive</strong>.
    </p>

Meeting people

<p>
        In this lesson we will learn to use <strong>conjunctions</strong> in Turkish, a very important class of words.
        After learning these, you will be able to make longer sentences in Turkish.
    </p>

    <p>
        Let's take a look at some conjunctions:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>There is coffee <strong>and</strong> tea</td>
            <td>Kahve <strong>ve</strong> çay var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is no coffee, <strong>but</strong> there is tea.</td>
            <td>Kahve yok, <strong>ama</strong> çay var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is no coffee, <strong>but</strong> there is tea.</td>
            <td>Kahve yok, <strong>fakat</strong> çay var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I want to eat <strong>because</strong> I'm hungry, <strong>but</strong> there is no food.</td>
            <td>Yemek istiyorum <strong>çünkü</strong> açım, <strong>ama</strong> yemek yok.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        <strong>Ama</strong> and <strong>fakat</strong> mean exactly the same and are interchangeable.
        In practice, <strong>ama</strong> is used more by younger people and <strong>fakat</strong> is used more by older people.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Do you want coffee <strong>or</strong> tea?</td>
            <td>Kahve <strong>ya da</strong> çay istiyor musun?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Do you want coffee <strong>or</strong> tea?</td>
            <td>Kahve <strong>veya</strong> çay istiyor musun?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Do you want coffee <strong>or</strong> do you want tea?</td>
            <td>Kahve mi <strong>yoksa</strong> çay mı istiyorsun?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        <strong>Ya da</strong> and <strong>veya</strong> also mean exactly the same and can also be used interchangeably.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>Yoksa</strong>'s meaning is closer to <strong>otherwise</strong> or <strong>if not</strong>.
        In the sentences below containing <strong>ya da</strong> or <strong>veya</strong>, there might be more options, for example water, that the listener can choose from.
        In the sentence containing <strong>yoksa</strong>, the choice is between coffee and tea, and nothing else.
    </p>

    <p>
        When using <strong>yoksa</strong> it is necessary to put the question particle after both alternatives, and the verb does not receive a question particle.
    </p>

Conjunctions

<p>
        In a question it is common to put the question particle at the end of the sentence.
        This is not necessary however.
    </p>

    <p>
        If you want to stress a particular part of the sentence, then you can put the question particle behind this part.
        This shows that <strong>it is the part before the question particle that you are questioning</strong>, while you already assume the rest of the sentence to be true.
    </p>

    <p>
        In the three questions in the table below you assume and question different things:
    </p>

    <ul>
        <li>In the first sentence below you assume nothing.</li>
        <li>In the second sentence you assume that there is someone who wants coffee, and you ask whether it is Elif.</li>
        <li>In the third sentence you assume that Elif wants something, and you ask whether it is coffee that she wants.</li>
    </ul>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>Does Elif want coffee?</td>
            <td>Elif kahve istiyor mu?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is it Elif who wants coffee?</td>
            <td>Elif mi kahve istiyor?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is it coffee that Elif wants?</td>
            <td>Elif kahve mi istiyor?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Stress inside questions

<p>
        Look at the table below to understand the meaning of the <strong>locative location pronouns</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>The old man is sleeping <strong>here</strong>.</td>
            <td>Yaşlı adam <strong>burada</strong> uyuyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The grocery store is <strong>there</strong>.</td>
            <td>Bakkal <strong>şurada</strong>.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is a market <strong>over there</strong>.</td>
            <td><strong>Orada</strong> (bir) pazar var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>Where</strong> is the supermarket?</td>
            <td>Süpermarket <strong>nerede</strong>?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        The word <strong>şurada</strong> is used for locations closer by than <strong>orada</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        As you can see, the locative location pronouns are built from three parts:
    </p>

    <ol>
        <li>They start with a demonstrative prounoun - <strong>bu</strong>, <strong>şu</strong> or <strong>o</strong> - or with the question word <strong>ne</strong></li>
        <li>Then comes the particle <strong>rE</strong> meaning <strong>place</strong></li>
        <li>And finally the locative suffix <strong>DE</strong> is attached to the end</li>
    </ol>

    <p>
        So <strong>burada</strong> literally means <strong>at this place</strong> and <strong>nerede</strong> literally means <strong>at what place</strong>.
    </p>

    <p>
        In the next lessons, you will learn that you can also attach different suffixes in step three, creating words like <strong>buradan</strong> and <strong>nereye</strong>, of which you can probably already predict the meaning.
    </p>

Locative location pronouns

<p>
        Besides <strong>locative location pronouns</strong>, there are also <strong>dative location pronouns</strong> and <strong>ablative location pronouns</strong>.
        Study the table below to understand their meanings:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I am going <strong>from here to there</strong>.</td>
            <td><strong>Buradan oraya</strong> gidiyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>From there to here</strong> is very far.</td>
            <td><strong>Oradan buraya</strong> çok uzak.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>She lives close <strong>to there</strong>.</td>
            <td><strong>Şuraya</strong> yakın oturuyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>Where</strong> are you going?</td>
            <td><strong>Nereye</strong> gidiyorsun.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td><strong>From where</strong> is it coming?</td>
            <td><strong>Nereden</strong> geliyor?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        These location pronouns are built in the same way as the locative location pronoun:
    </p>

    <ol>
        <li>They start with a demonstrative pronoun - <strong>bu</strong>, <strong>şu</strong> or <strong>o</strong> - or with the question word <strong>ne</strong></li>
        <li>Then comes the particle <strong>rE</strong> meaning <strong>place</strong></li>
        <li>Add the dative suffix <strong>(y)E</strong> to form a dative location pronoun<br/>Add the ablative suffix <strong>DEn</strong> to form an ablative location pronoun</li>
    </ol>

Dative and ablative location pronouns

<p>
        Below you see the personal pronouns with accusative and locative case suffixes:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th>Nominative</th>
				<th>Accusative</th>
				<th>Locative</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>ben</td>
				<td>beni</td>
				<td>bende</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>sen</td>
				<td>seni</td>
				<td>sende</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>o</td>
				<td>o<strong>n</strong>u</td>
				<td>o<strong>n</strong>da</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>biz</td>
				<td>bizi</td>
				<td>bizde</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>siz</td>
				<td>sizi</td>
				<td>sizde</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>onlar</td>
				<td>onları</td>
				<td>onlarda</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        As you can see, we can form these by just adding the suffixes <strong>(y)İ</strong> and <strong>DE</strong> after the pronoun.
        The only exception is that the third person singular uses <strong>n</strong> as a buffer letter, before the suffix follows.
    </p>

    <p>
        Below are some example sentences. Note that the locative can also be used for expressing possession.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I love you.</td>
            <td>Seni seviyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>We are eating at his place.</td>
            <td>Onda yiyoruz.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I have no money.</td>
            <td>Bende para yok.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>You have the pen.</td>
            <td>Kalem sizde.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>He is beating her.</td>
            <td>Onu dövüyor.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        Be careful with the response to <strong>Seni seviyorum</strong>.
        You should say <strong>Ben de seni seviyorum</strong> and not <strong>Seni de seviyorum</strong>.
        The sentence <strong>Seni de seviyorum</strong> implies that you love others besides your partner.
    </p>

Accusative and locative personal pronouns

<p>
        The genitive case suffix <strong>(n)İn</strong> is used to denote possession.
        Note that this suffix uses <strong>n</strong> instead of <strong>y</strong> as a buffer letter.
    </p>

    <p>
        You can see some examples of the genitive case suffix below:
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>The key is of the car.</td>
            <td>Anahtar araba<strong>nın</strong>.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The keys are of the house.</td>
            <td>Anahtarlar ev<strong>in</strong>.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Is this computer Selma's?</td>
            <td>Bu bilgisayar Selma'<strong>nın</strong> mı?</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>No, that computer is not Selma's.<br/>It is Mehmet's.</td>
            <td>Hayır, şu bilgisayar Selma'<strong>nın</strong> değil.<br/>Mehmet'<strong>in</strong>.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        As you see in the last two sentences, <strong>proper nouns</strong> also receive an apostrophe before the genitive case suffix.
    </p>

The genitive case suffix

<p>
        Below you see the personal pronouns with the genitive case suffix:
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>my, mine</td>
            <td>benim</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>your, yours</td>
            <td>senin</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>his, her, hers, its</td>
            <td>onun</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>our, ours</td>
            <td>bizim</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>your, yours</td>
            <td>sizin</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>their, theirs</td>
            <td>onların</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        As we know from the last lesson, the genitive case denotes possession and is written as <strong>(n)İn</strong>.
        There are two exceptions however, since for the first person singular and plural, the suffix is <strong>İm</strong>.
        Note again that in this suffix the buffer letter is <strong>n</strong> instead of <strong>y</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>You are mine.</td>
            <td>Sen benimsin.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The pen is yours.</td>
            <td>Kalem senin.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The children are hers.</td>
            <td>Çocuklar onun.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The small house is ours.</td>
            <td>Küçük ev bizim.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The power is yours.</td>
            <td>Güç sizin.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The horses are theirs.</td>
            <td>Atlar onların.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Genitive personal pronouns

<p>
        As you can see below, Turkish has different words for paternal and maternal uncles and aunts, and also has specific words for referring to your maternal grandparents.
    </p>

    <p>
        <strong>Paternal</strong> means from your father's side, and <strong>maternal</strong> means from your mother's side.
    </p>

    <p>
        The words <strong>büyükbaba</strong>, <strong>dede</strong> and <strong>büyükanne</strong> can be used both for your paternal and your maternal grandparents.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>grandfather</td>
            <td>büyükbaba / dede</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>grandmother</td>
            <td>büyükanne</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>paternal grandmother</td>
            <td>babaanne</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>maternal grandmother</td>
            <td>anneanne</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>paternal uncle</td>
            <td>amca</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>paternal aunt</td>
            <td>hala</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>maternal uncle</td>
            <td>dayı</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>maternal aunt</td>
            <td>teyze</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>cousin</td>
            <td>kuzen</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>nephew, niece</td>
            <td>yeğen</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Extended family

<p>
        The <strong>possession suffix</strong> indicates that one thing is owned by another. Below are its forms:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed definition table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th></th>
				<th>Singular</th>
				<th>Plural</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>First person</td>
				<td>(İ)m</td>
				<td>(İ)mİz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Second person</td>
				<td>(İ)n</td>
				<td>(İ)nİz</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>Third person</td>
				<td>(s)İ</td>
				<td>lErİ / (s)İ</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        Below you can see some examples to see how the suffix is used.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>my house</td>
            <td>(benim) ev<strong>im</strong></td>
            <td>my mother</td>
            <td>(benim) anne<strong>m</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>your sibling</td>
            <td>(senin) kardeş<strong>in</strong></td>
            <td>your father</td>
            <td>(senin) baba<strong>n</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>her elder sisters</td>
            <td>(onun) ablalar<strong>ı</strong></td>
            <td>the child's father</td>
            <td>çocuğun baba<strong>sı</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>our horse</td>
            <td>(bizim) at<strong>ımız</strong></td>
            <td>our family</td>
            <td>(bizim) aile<strong>miz</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>your coffee</td>
            <td>(sizin) kahve<strong>niz</strong></td>
            <td>your children</td>
            <td>(sizin) çocuklar<strong>ınız</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>their elder sister</td>
            <td>(onların) abla<strong>ları</strong><br/>(onların) abla<strong>sı</strong></td>
            <td>their elder sisters</td>
            <td>(onların) abla<strong>ları</strong></td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        Note that personal pronouns in front of the possessed object are always optional, since the suffix of the possessed object already indicates which person is the owner.
    </p>

    <p>
        Also note that <strong>her elder sisters</strong>, <strong>their elder sister</strong> and <strong>their elder sisters</strong> can all be translated by <strong>ablaları</strong>.
        You can disambiguate <strong>her elder sisters</strong> by saying <strong>onun ablaları</strong>.
        You can disambiguate <strong>their elder sister</strong> by saying <strong>onların ablası</strong>, using the third person singular suffix.
    </p>

    <p>
        Now you might think that you can disambiguate <strong>their elder sisters</strong> by saying <strong>onların ablalarları</strong>, with one <strong>lar</strong> for indicating that the possessor is plural, and the other <strong>lar</strong> for indicating that the possessed object is plural.
        Unfortunately, you can <strong>never use the plural suffix twice</strong> in a single word, so this is not possible.
    </p>

The possession suffix

<p>
        Below you see the personal pronouns with all case suffixes:
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
		<thead>
			<tr>
				<th>Nominative</th>
				<th>Genitive</th>
				<th>Dative</th>
				<th>Accusative</th>
				<th>Ablative</th>
				<th>Locative</th>
			</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
			<tr>
				<td>ben</td>
				<td>benim</td>
				<td><strong>bana</strong></td>
				<td>beni</td>
				<td>benden</td>
				<td>bende</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>sen</td>
				<td>senin</td>
				<td><strong>sana</strong></td>
				<td>seni</td>
				<td>senden</td>
				<td>sende</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>o</td>
				<td>onun</td>
				<td>ona</td>
				<td>onu</td>
				<td>ondan</td>
				<td>onda</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>biz</td>
				<td>bizim</td>
				<td>bize</td>
				<td>bizi</td>
				<td>bizden</td>
				<td>bizde</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>siz</td>
				<td>sizin</td>
				<td>size</td>
				<td>sizi</td>
				<td>sizden</td>
				<td>sizde</td>
			</tr>
			<tr>
				<td>onlar</td>
				<td>onların</td>
				<td>onlara</td>
				<td>onları</td>
				<td>onlardan</td>
				<td>onlarda</td>
			</tr>
		</tbody>
    </table>

    <p>
        The <strong>ablative case suffix</strong> after personal pronouns is exactly what you would expect by now, including the buffer letter <strong>n</strong> in the third persons.
        For the <strong>dative case suffix</strong> we see two irregularities, <strong>bana</strong> and <strong>sana</strong>. Remember these, and then you've got all case suffixes after personal pronouns covered.
        Congratulations!
    </p>

    <p>
        Below are some example sentences with the <strong>dative</strong> and the <strong>ablative</strong> case suffixes.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I hate you.</td>
            <td>Senden nefret ediyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I am sending the letter to them now.</td>
            <td>Mektubu şimdi onlara gönderiyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I am coming to you immediately.</td>
            <td>Hemen sana geliyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Please give me the pen.</td>
            <td>Kalemi bana verin lütfen.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I am afraid of him.</td>
            <td>Ondan korkuyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>He is looking after her well.</td>
            <td>Ona iyi bakıyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Take the milk from her.</td>
            <td>Sütü ondan al.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        As you see, there are also some verbs that expect their object to have an ablative suffix, such as <strong>korkmak</strong> and <strong>nefret etmek</strong>.
        You will need to memorize which verb expects which suffixes after its objects, because there are no regular rules for this.
    </p>

Dative and ablative personal pronouns

<p>
        We have already learned how to express possession using the locative case suffix:
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I have no money.</td>
            <td>Bende para yok.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>You have the pen.</td>
            <td>Kalem sizde.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        In this lesson you will learn to express possession using the possession suffix and <strong>var</strong> or <strong>yok</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>I have no money.</td>
            <td>Param yok.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I have pain.</td>
            <td>Ağrım var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>He has an expensive watch.</td>
            <td>Pahalı (bir) saati var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>She has a beautiful bag.</td>
            <td>Güzel (bir) çantası var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>She has one beautiful bag.</td>
            <td>Bir güzel çantası var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Do you have a bicycle?</td>
            <td>Bisikletin var mı?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        Note that the word <strong>saat</strong> becomes <strong>saati</strong> with a possession suffix, and not <strong>saatı</strong> as we would expect.
        Turkish has several words borrowed from other languages that do not obey the rules of vowel harmony.
        <strong>Saat</strong> is one of them, and you will see more of them during the rest of the course.
    </p>

    <p>
        If you know that you write <strong>his watch</strong> as <strong>saati</strong>, then you also know that <strong>watches</strong> is <strong>saatler</strong> and that <strong>on the watch</strong> is <strong>saatte</strong>.
        If a word doesn't obey the rules of vowel harmony in one suffix, then it doesn't obey the rules of vowel harmony in all suffixes.
    </p>

Expressing possession with var and yok

Clothing

The head and related parts

<p>
        We can use two nouns to construct a new noun by attaching the possession suffix <strong>(s)İ</strong> to the second noun:
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>handbag</td>
            <td>el çanta<strong>sı</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>backpack</td>
            <td>sırt çanta<strong>sı</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>cellphone</td>
            <td>cep telefon<strong>u</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>apple trees</td>
            <td>elma ağaçlar<strong>ı</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>ankle</td>
            <td>ayak bileğ<strong>i</strong></td>
        </tr>
	    <tr>
            <td>wrist</td>
            <td>el bileğ<strong>i</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>toe</td>
            <td>ayak parmağ<strong>ı</strong></td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        If we use possession suffixes in combination with compound nouns, the suffix of the compound noun disappears:
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>my handbag</td>
            <td>el çanta<strong>m</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>your backpack</td>
            <td>sırt çanta<strong>n</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>my father's cellphone</td>
            <td>babamın cep telefon<strong>u</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>our apple trees</td>
            <td>elma ağaçlar<strong>ımız</strong></td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Whose ankle?</td>
            <td>Kimin ayak bileğ<strong>i</strong>?</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        In the word <strong>babamın</strong> the possession suffix <strong>m</strong>, denoting that it is my father, is followed by the genitive suffix <strong>ın</strong> indicating that he in turn possesses the phone.
    </p>

Compound nouns

<p>
        Below you can see a list with body parts.
    </p>

    <p>
        Unfortunately, there is not really a good way to say <strong>butt</strong> or <strong>ass</strong> in Turkish, since <strong>popo</strong> seems childish, and on the other hand <strong>kıç</strong> seems vulgar. Therefore, <strong>kalça</strong> is often used instead of these words, but <strong>kalça</strong> actually means <strong>hip</strong>.
    </p>

    <table class="ui celled fixed table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>body</td>
            <td>vücut</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>shoulder</td>
            <td>omuz</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>arm</td>
            <td>kol</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>elbow</td>
            <td>dirsek</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>chest, breast</td>
            <td>göğüs</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>breast</td>
            <td>meme</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>abdomen, belly, stomach</td>
            <td>karın</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>back</td>
            <td>sırt</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>hip</td>
            <td>kalça</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>butt, ass</td>
            <td>popo, kıç</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>leg</td>
            <td>bacak</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Body parts

<p>
        We can combine the <strong>possession suffix</strong> with other suffixes. In this case the buffer letter <strong>n</strong> is used if the possession suffix ends in a vowel.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>There is a cat in my handbag.</td>
            <td>El çantamda bir kedi var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Drink your water.</td>
            <td>Suyunu iç.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>There is an insect in your water.</td>
            <td>Suyunuzda bir böcek var.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The lamp is in his car.</td>
            <td>Lamba onun arabası<strong>n</strong>da.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The witch is flying on her broom.</td>
            <td>Cadı süpürgesi<strong>n</strong>de uçuyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I am afraid of her children.</td>
            <td>Onun çocukları<strong>n</strong>dan korkuyorum.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Put it on his table please.</td>
            <td>Onun masası<strong>n</strong>a koyun lütfen.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>My dog is eating my neighbor's cat.</td>
            <td>Köpeğim komşumun kedisi<strong>n</strong>i yiyor.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Combining suffixes

<p>
	One noun, namely <strong>su</strong>, behaves irregularly when we add the possession suffix.
</p>

<table class="ui celled fixed table">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
		<td>my water</td>
		<td>su<strong>yu</strong>m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>your water</td>
			<td>su<strong>yu</strong>n</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>his water</td>
			<td>su<strong>yu</strong></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>our water</td>
			<td>su<strong>yu</strong>muz</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>your water</td>
			<td>su<strong>yu</strong>nuz</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>their water</td>
			<td>suları</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

Water and the possession suffix

<p>
        Turkish has a significant amount of words ending in a consonant that <strong>drop their last vowel when they are followed by a vowel</strong>.
        There is no rule for which words possess this feature, so you will have to memorize the words that do.
        Note however, that many of these words are referring to body parts.
    </p>

    <p>
        Below you can see some examples of these words used in sentences.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>My shoulder is hurting.</td>
            <td>Omzum ağrıyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>His breast is naked.</td>
            <td>Göğsü çıplak.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>My stomach is rumbling.</td>
            <td>Karnım gurulduyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Your nose is big.</td>
            <td>Burnun büyük.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>My mouth is full.</td>
            <td>Ağzım dolu.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Your forehead is sweating.</td>
            <td>Alnın terliyor.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Please massage my neck.</td>
            <td>Lütfen boynuma masaj yap.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

Vowel elimination on suffixation

<p>
        The following nouns expressing locations are often used with a possessive suffix to indicate location.
    </p>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>back, rear</td>
            <td>arka</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>its back</td>
            <td>arkası</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>at its back /behind it</td>
            <td>arkasında</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Stay behind me.</td>
            <td><strong>Arkamda</strong> kal.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Look behind you.</td>
            <td><strong>Arkana</strong> bak.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>front</td>
            <td>ön</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>its front</td>
            <td>önü</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>at its front / in front of it</td>
            <td>önünde</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Wait in front of the hotel.</td>
            <td><strong>Otelin önünde</strong> bekleyin.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>side</td>
            <td>yan</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>its side</td>
            <td>yanı</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>at its side / beside it</td>
            <td>yanında</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Come beside me.</td>
            <td><strong>Yanıma</strong> gel.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Stay by my side.</td>
            <td><strong>Yanımda</strong> kal.</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>Go from my side.</td>
            <td><strong>Yanımdan</strong> git.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>space between</td>
            <td>ara</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>its space between</td>
            <td>arası</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>at its space between / between / among</td>
            <td>arasında</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>I am sitting between the trees.</td>
            <td>Ağaçların arasında oturuyorum.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>bottom</td>
            <td>alt</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>its bottom</td>
            <td>altı</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>at its bottom / under(neath) it</td>
            <td>altında</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The cat is sleeping under the table.</td>
            <td>Kedi <strong>masanın altında</strong> uyuyor.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <table class="ui fixed celled table">
        <tbody><tr>
            <td>top</td>
            <td>üst</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>its top</td>
            <td>üstü</td>
        </tr><tr>
        </tr><tr>
            <td>at its top / on top of it</td>
            <td>üstünde</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>The book is on top of the shelf.</td>
            <td>Kitap <strong>rafın üstünde</strong>.</td>
        </tr>
    </tbody></table>

    <p>
        We will always translate <strong>on top of</strong> with <strong>üstünde</strong>, and we will always translate <strong>on</strong> with the locative suffix <strong>DE</strong>.
        However, in practice <strong>on</strong> can be translated both by <strong>üstünde</strong> and by the locative suffix <strong>DE</strong>.
    </p>

Turkish 111 - Education

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