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Sociology

<OpenstaxFigure id="import-auto-id2756026" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/c13d433c33d630313ee310924d5e281dfeb93a51" alt="Figure a shows a float made by Girl Scouts. Figure b shows the hallway of a correctional facility." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1100" height="444" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1100">
	Figure 6.8 Girl Scout troops and correctional facilities are both formal organizations. (Credit: (a) moonlightbulb/flickr; (b) CxOxS/flickr)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Sociologist Amitai Etzioni (1975) posited that formal organizations fall into three categories. <OpenstaxTerm>Normative organizations</OpenstaxTerm>, also called <OpenstaxTerm>voluntary organizations</OpenstaxTerm>, are based on shared interests. As the name suggests, joining them is voluntary. People find membership rewarding in an intangible way. They receive non-material benefits. The Audubon Society and a ski club are examples of normative organizations.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Coercive organizations</OpenstaxTerm> are groups that we must be coerced, or pushed, to join. These may include prison or a rehabilitation center. Symbolic interactionist Erving Goffman states that most coercive organizations are <OpenstaxTerm>total institutions</OpenstaxTerm> (1961). A total institution is one in which inmates or military soldiers live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization takes place.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The third type is <OpenstaxTerm>utilitarian organizations</OpenstaxTerm>, which, as the name suggests, are joined because of the need for a specific material reward. High school and the workplace fall into this category—one joined in pursuit of a diploma, the other in order to make money.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="import-auto-id1496221">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh /> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Normative or Voluntary
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Coercive
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Utilitarian
			</OpenstaxTh>
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Benefit of Membership
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Intangible benefit
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Corrective benefit
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Tangible benefit
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Type of Membership
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Volunteer basis
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Required
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Contractual basis
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Feeling of Connectedness
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Shared affinity
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				No affinity
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Some affinity
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	Table 6.1 Table of Formal Organizations - This table shows Etzioni’s three types of formal organizations. (Credit: Etzioni 1975)
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxH3>The Structure of Bureaucracies</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Bureaucracies are an ideal type of formal organization. By ideal, sociologists don’t mean “best.” Rather, bureaucracies have a collection of characteristics that most of them exhibit. Pioneer sociologist Max Weber characterized a bureaucracy as having a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality (1922). People often complain about bureaucracies––declaring them slow, rule-bound, difficult to navigate, and unfriendly. Let’s take a look at terms that define a bureaucracy to understand what they mean.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Hierarchy of authority</OpenstaxTerm> refers to the chain of command that places one individual or office in charge of another, who in turn must answer to her own superiors. For example, as an employee at Walmart, your shift manager assigns you tasks. Your shift manager answers to his store manager, who must answer to her regional manager, and so on, up to the CEO who must answer to the board members, who in turn answer to the stockholders. Everyone in this bureaucracy follows the chain of command.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Bureaucracies have a <OpenstaxTerm>clear division of labor</OpenstaxTerm>: each individual has a specialized task to perform. For example, at a university, psychology professors teach psychology, but they do not attempt to provide students with financial aid forms. The Office of Admissions often takes on this task. In this case, it is a clear and commonsense division. But what about in a restaurant where food is backed up in the kitchen and a hostess is standing nearby texting on her phone? Her job is to seat customers, not to deliver food. Is this a smart division of labor?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Bureaucracies have <OpenstaxTerm>explicit rules</OpenstaxTerm>, rules that are outlined, written down, and standardized. For example, at your college or university, the student guidelines are contained within the Student Handbook. As technology changes and campuses encounter new concerns like cyberbullying, identity theft, and other problems that arise, organizations scramble to ensure their explicit rules cover these emerging issues.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Finally, bureaucracies are also characterized by <OpenstaxTerm>impersonality</OpenstaxTerm>, which takes personal feelings out of professional situations. This characteristic grew, to some extent, out of a desire to avoid nepotism, backroom deals, and other types of favoritism, while simultaneously protecting customers and others served by the organization. Impersonality Bureaucracies can effectively and efficiently serve volumes of customers quickly. However, explicit rules, clear division of labor, and a strict hierarchy of authority does not allow them to easily adjust to unique or new situations. As a result, customers frequently complain that stores with bureaucratic structures, like Walmart, care little about individuals, other businesses, and the community at large.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Bureaucracies are often <OpenstaxTerm>meritocracies</OpenstaxTerm>, meaning that hiring and promotion is based on proven and documented skills, rather than on nepotism or random choice. In order to get into a prestigious college, you need to perform well on the SAT and have an impressive transcript. In order to become a lawyer and represent clients, you must graduate law school and pass the state bar exam. Of course, there are many well-documented examples of success by those who did not proceed through traditional meritocracies. Think about technology companies with founders who dropped out of college, or performers who became famous after a YouTube video went viral.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In addition, organizations that aspire to become meritocracies encounter challenges. How well do you think established meritocracies identify talent? Wealthy families hire tutors, interview coaches, test-prep services, and consultants to help their kids get into the best schools. This starts as early as kindergarten in New York City, where competition for the most highly-regarded schools is especially fierce. Are these schools, many of which have copious scholarship funds that are intended to make the school more democratic, really offering all applicants a fair shake?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	There are several positive aspects of bureaucracies. They are intended to improve efficiency, ensure equal opportunities, and serve a large population. And there are times when rigid hierarchies are needed. But remember that many of our bureaucracies grew large at the same time that our school model was developed––during the Industrial Revolution. Young workers were trained, and organizations were built for mass production, assembly line work, and factory jobs. In these scenarios, a clear chain of command was critical. Now, in the information age, this kind of rigid training and adherence to protocol can actually decrease both productivity and efficiency. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Today’s workplace requires a faster pace, more problem solving, and a flexible approach to work. Too much adherence to explicit rules and a division of labor can leave an organization behind. And unfortunately, once established, bureaucracies can take on a life of their own. Maybe you have heard the expression “trying to turn a tanker around mid-ocean,” which refers to the difficulties of changing direction with something large and set in its ways. State governments and current budget crises are examples of this challenge. It is almost impossible to make quick changes, leading states to fail, year after year, to address increasingly unbalanced budgets. Finally, bureaucracies, grew as institutions at a time when privileged white males held all the power. While ostensibly based on meritocracy, bureaucracies can perpetuate the existing balance of power by only recognizing the merit in traditionally male and privileged paths. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Michels (1911) suggested that all large organizations are characterized by the <OpenstaxTerm>Iron Rule of Oligarchy</OpenstaxTerm>, wherein an entire organization is ruled by a few elites. Do you think this is true? Can a large organization be collaborative?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="import-auto-id2684383" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/7ee55a312dbd7cedc7410a69a68362515774a995" alt="The front of a McDonald’s restaurant featuring Arabic writing is shown." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1100" height="525" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1100">
	Figure 6.9 This McDonald’s storefront in Egypt shows the McDonaldization of society. (Credit: s_w_ellis/flickr)
</OpenstaxFigureText>

6.3.1 Types of Formal Organizations

1 An Introduction to Sociology

1.1 What Is Sociology?

1.1.1 What Are Society and Culture?

1.1.2 Studying Patterns: How Sociologists View Society

1.1.3 Studying Part and Whole: How Sociologists View Social Structures

1.2 The History of Sociology

1.2.1 Creating a Discipline: European Theorists

1.2.2 Applying the Discipline: American Theorists and Practitioners

1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1.3.1 Functionalism

1.3.2 Conflict Theory

1.3.3 Symbolic Interactionist Theory

1.3.4 Sociological Theory Today

1.4 Why Study Sociology?

1.4.1 Sociology and a Better Society

1.4.2 Sociology in the Workplace

2 Sociological Research

2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research

2.1.1 The Scientific Method

2.1.2 Interpretive Framework

2.1.3 Critical Sociology

2.2 Research Methods

2.2.1 Surveys

2.2.2 Field Research

2.2.3 Experiments

2.2.4 Secondary Data Analysis

2.3 Ethical Concerns

3 Culture

3.1 What Is Culture?

3.1.1 Cultural Universals

3.1.2 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

3.2 Elements of Culture

3.2.1 Values and Beliefs

3.2.2 Norms

3.2.3 Symbols and Culture

3.2.4 Language and Symbols

3.2.5 Language and Culture

3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change

3.3.1 High, Low, and Popular Culture

3.3.2 Subculture and Counterculture

3.3.3 Cultural Change

3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture

4 Society and Social Interaction

4.1 Types of Societies

4.1.1 Preindustrial Societies

4.1.2 Industrial Society

4.1.3 Postindustrial Society

4.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Society

4.2.1 Émile Durkheim and Functionalism

4.2.2 Karl Marx and Conflict Theory

4.2.3 Max Weber and Symbolic Interactionism

4.3 Social Constructions of Reality

4.3.1 Roles and Status

4.3.2 Presentation of Self

5 Socialization

5.1 Theories of Self-Development

5.1.1 Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development

5.1.2 Sociological Theories of Self-Development

5.2 Why Socialization Matters

5.2.1 Nature versus Nurture

5.3 Agents of Socialization

5.3.1 Social Group Agents

5.3.2 Institutional Agents

5.4 Socialization Across the Life Course

5.4.1 Resocialization

6 Groups and Organization

6.1 Types of Groups

6.1.1 Defining a Group

6.1.2 Types of Groups

6.1.3 In-Groups and Out-Groups

6.1.4 Reference Groups

6.2 Group Size and Structure

6.2.1 Dyads, Triads, and Large Groups

6.2.2 Group Leadership

6.2.3 Conformity

6.2.4 The Bystander Effect and Diffusion of Responsibility

6.3 Formal Organizations

6.3.2 The McDonaldization of Society

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

7.1 Deviance and Control

7.1.1 Deviance, Crime, and Society

7.1.2 Social Control

7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime

7.2.1 Functionalism

7.2.2 Conflict Theory

7.2.3 Symbolic Interactionism

7.3 Crime and the Law

7.3.1 Types of Crimes

7.3.2 Crime Statistics

7.3.3 Public Perception of Crime

7.3.4 The U.S. Criminal Justice System

8 Media and Technology

8.1 Technology Today

8.1.1 What Is Technology?

8.2 Media and Technology in Society

8.2.1 Categorizing Technology

8.2.2 Types of Media and Technology

8.2.3 Product Advertising and the Attention Economy

8.2.4 Homogenization and Fragmentation

Question	Answer
the fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform	clear division of labor
organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital	coercive organizations
the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized	explicit rules
a clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy	hierarchy of authority
the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation	impersonality
the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration	Iron Rule of Oligarchy
organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need	utilitarian organizations