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Sociology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Most theories of social movements are called collective action theories, indicating the purposeful nature of this form of collective behavior. The following three theories are but a few of the many classic and modern theories developed by social scientists.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Resource Mobilization</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	McCarthy and Zald (1977) conceptualize <OpenstaxTerm>resource mobilization theory</OpenstaxTerm> as a way to explain movement success in terms of the ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals. Resources are primarily time and money, and the more of both, the greater the power of organized movements. Numbers of <OpenstaxTerm>social movement organizations</OpenstaxTerm> (SMOs), which are single social movement groups, with the same goals constitute a social movement industry (SMI). Together they create what McCarthy and Zald (1977) refer to as "the sum of all social movements in a society." 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH4>Resource Mobilization and the Civil Rights Movement</OpenstaxH4>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	An example of resource mobilization theory is activity of the civil rights movement in the decade between the mid 1950s and the mid 1960s. Social movements had existed before, notably the Women's Suffrage Movement and a long line of labor movements, thus constituting an existing <OpenstaxTerm>social movement sector</OpenstaxTerm>, which is the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals. The civil rights movement had also existed well before Rosa Parks refused to give up her bus seat to a white man. Less known is that Parks was a member of the NAACP and trained in leadership (A&amp;E Television Networks, LLC. 2014). But her action that day was spontaneous and unplanned (Schmitz 2014). Her arrest triggered a public outcry that led to the famous Montgomery bus boycott, turning the movement into what we now think of as the "civil rights movement" (Schmitz 2014).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Mobilization had to begin immediately. Boycotting the bus made other means of transportation necessary, which was provided through car pools. Churches and their ministers joined the struggle, and the protest organization In Friendship was formed as well as The Friendly Club and the Club From Nowhere. A <OpenstaxTerm>social movement industry</OpenstaxTerm>, which is the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals, was growing.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Martin Luther King Jr. emerged during these events to become the charismatic leader of the movement, gained respect from elites in the federal government, and aided by even more emerging SMOs such as the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), among others. Several still exist today. Although the movement in that period was an overall success, and laws were changed (even if not attitudes), the "movement" continues. So do struggles to keep the gains that were made, even as the U.S. Supreme Court has recently weakened the Voter Rights Act of 1965, once again making it more difficult for Black Americans and other minorities to vote.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="eip-id1851082" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/55ae6576999b44b0607aee272ad9caca16fa72bb" alt="Pictured is a flow chart showing the tiers of the Social Movement Sector. At the top of the chart is the social movement sector. Below that box is the social movement industries. Three boxes come from that one; and, they are the animal right industry, the marriage rights industry, and the food movement industry. One box comes from the animal rights industry box; and, it is social movement organization. Two boxes come from the social movement organization box; and, they are People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) and Animal Liberation Front (ALF). One box comes from the marriage rights industry; and, it is social movement organizations. Two more boxes come from the social movement organizations box; and, they are the Human Rights Campaign, and the National Organization for Marriage. One box come from the food movement industry box; and, it is social movement organizations. Two more boxes come from the social movement organizations box; and, they are the Slow Food Movement, and the Locavore Movement." mediaType="image/jpg" width="967" height="621" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="967">
	<strong>Figure 21.9</strong> Multiple social movement organizations concerned about the same issue form a social movement industry. A society’s many social movement industries comprise its social movement sector. With so many options, to whom will you give your time and money?
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxH3>Framing/Frame Analysis</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Over the past several decades, sociologists have developed the concept of frames to explain how individuals identify and understand social events and which norms they should follow in any given situation (Goffman 1974; Snow et al. 1986; Benford and Snow 2000). Imagine entering a restaurant. Your “frame” immediately provides you with a behavior template. It probably does not occur to you to wear pajamas to a fine-dining establishment, throw food at other patrons, or spit your drink onto the table. However, eating food at a sleepover pizza party provides you with an entirely different behavior template. It might be perfectly acceptable to eat in your pajamas and maybe even throw popcorn at others or guzzle drinks from cans. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Successful social movements use three kinds of frames (Snow and Benford 1988) to further their goals. The first type, <OpenstaxTerm>diagnostic framing</OpenstaxTerm>, states the problem in a clear, easily understood way. When applying diagnostic frames, there are no shades of gray: instead, there is the belief that what “they” do is wrong and this is how “we” will fix it. The anti-gay marriage movement is an example of diagnostic framing with its uncompromising insistence that marriage is only between a man and a woman. <OpenstaxTerm>Prognostic framing</OpenstaxTerm>, the second type, offers a solution and states how it will be implemented. Some examples of this frame, when looking at the issue of marriage equality as framed by the anti-gay marriage movement, include the plan to restrict marriage to “one man/one woman” or to allow only “civil unions” instead of marriages. As you can see, there may be many competing prognostic frames even within social movements adhering to similar diagnostic frames. Finally, <OpenstaxTerm>motivational framing</OpenstaxTerm> is the call to action: what should you do once you agree with the diagnostic frame and believe in the prognostic frame? These frames are action-oriented. In the gay marriage movement, a call to action might encourage you to vote “no” on Proposition 8 in California (a move to limit marriage to male-female couples), or conversely, to contact your local congressperson to express your viewpoint that marriage should be restricted to male-female couples.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	With so many similar diagnostic frames, some groups find it best to join together to maximize their impact. When social movements link their goals to the goals of other social movements and merge into a single group, a <OpenstaxTerm>frame alignment process</OpenstaxTerm> (Snow et al. 1986) occurs—an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to the movement. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	This frame alignment process has four aspects: bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation. <OpenstaxEm>Bridging</OpenstaxEm> describes a “bridge” that connects uninvolved individuals and unorganized or ineffective groups with social movements that, though structurally unconnected, nonetheless share similar interests or goals. These organizations join together to create a new, stronger social movement organization. Can you think of examples of different organizations with a similar goal that have banded together?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the <OpenstaxEm>amplification</OpenstaxEm> model, organizations seek to expand their core ideas to gain a wider, more universal appeal. By expanding their ideas to include a broader range, they can mobilize more people for their cause. For example, the Slow Food movement extends its arguments in support of local food to encompass reduced energy consumption, pollution, obesity from eating more healthfully, and more.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In <OpenstaxEm>extension</OpenstaxEm>, social movements agree to mutually promote each other, even when the two social movement organization’s goals don’t necessarily relate to each other’s immediate goals. This often occurs when organizations are sympathetic to each others’ causes, even if they are not directly aligned, such as women’s equal rights and the civil rights movement. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="import-auto-id2621644" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/4f31febef14570d4200daa1b1b8a4a94e8884f62" alt="Figure (a) shows women’s suffrage marchers. Figure (b) shows a large group of marchers for civil rights. Figure (c) shows people waving a U.S. flag and a rainbow flag." mediaType="image/jpg" width="1200" height="279" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1200">
	<strong>Figure 21.10</strong> Extension occurs when social movements have sympathetic causes. Women’s rights, racial equality, and LGBT advocacy are all human rights issues. (Credit: Photos (a) and (b) Wikimedia Commons; Photo (c) Charlie Nguyen/flickr)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxEm>Transformation</OpenstaxEm> means a complete revision of goals. Once a movement has succeeded, it risks losing relevance. If it wants to remain active, the movement has to change with the transformation or risk becoming obsolete. For instance, when the women’s suffrage movement gained women the right to vote, members turned their attention to advocating equal rights and campaigning to elect women to office. In short, transformation is an evolution in the existing diagnostic or prognostic frames that generally achieves a total conversion of the movement.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>New Social Movement Theory</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>New social movement theory</OpenstaxTerm>, a development of European social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s, attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to analyze using traditional social movement theories. Rather than being one specific theory, it is more of a perspective that revolves around understanding movements as they relate to politics, identity, culture, and social change. Some of these more complex interrelated movements include ecofeminism, which focuses on the patriarchal society as the source of environmental problems, and the transgender rights movement. Sociologist Steven Buechler (2000) suggests that we should be looking at the bigger picture in which these movements arise—shifting to a macro-level, global analysis of social movements. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>

21.2.5 Theoretical Perspectives on Social Movements

1 An Introduction to Sociology

1.1 What Is Sociology?

1.1.1 What Are Society and Culture?

1.1.2 Studying Patterns: How Sociologists View Society

1.1.3 Studying Part and Whole: How Sociologists View Social Structures

1.2 The History of Sociology

1.2.1 Creating a Discipline: European Theorists

1.2.2 Applying the Discipline: American Theorists and Practitioners

1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1.3.1 Functionalism

1.3.2 Conflict Theory

1.3.3 Symbolic Interactionist Theory

1.3.4 Sociological Theory Today

1.4 Why Study Sociology?

1.4.1 Sociology and a Better Society

1.4.2 Sociology in the Workplace

2 Sociological Research

2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research

2.1.1 The Scientific Method

2.1.2 Interpretive Framework

2.1.3 Critical Sociology

2.2 Research Methods

2.2.1 Surveys

2.2.2 Field Research

2.2.3 Experiments

2.2.4 Secondary Data Analysis

2.3 Ethical Concerns

3 Culture

3.1 What Is Culture?

3.1.1 Cultural Universals

3.1.2 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

3.2 Elements of Culture

3.2.1 Values and Beliefs

3.2.2 Norms

3.2.3 Symbols and Culture

3.2.4 Language and Symbols

3.2.5 Language and Culture

3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change

3.3.1 High, Low, and Popular Culture

3.3.2 Subculture and Counterculture

3.3.3 Cultural Change

3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture

4 Society and Social Interaction

4.1 Types of Societies

4.1.1 Preindustrial Societies

4.1.2 Industrial Society

4.1.3 Postindustrial Society

4.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Society

4.2.1 Émile Durkheim and Functionalism

4.2.2 Karl Marx and Conflict Theory

4.2.3 Max Weber and Symbolic Interactionism

4.3 Social Constructions of Reality

4.3.1 Roles and Status

4.3.2 Presentation of Self

5 Socialization

5.1 Theories of Self-Development

5.1.1 Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development

5.1.2 Sociological Theories of Self-Development

5.2 Why Socialization Matters

5.2.1 Nature versus Nurture

5.3 Agents of Socialization

5.3.1 Social Group Agents

5.3.2 Institutional Agents

5.4 Socialization Across the Life Course

5.4.1 Resocialization

6 Groups and Organization

6.1 Types of Groups

6.1.1 Defining a Group

6.1.2 Types of Groups

6.1.3 In-Groups and Out-Groups

6.1.4 Reference Groups

6.2 Group Size and Structure

6.2.1 Dyads, Triads, and Large Groups

6.2.2 Group Leadership

6.2.3 Conformity

6.2.4 The Bystander Effect and Diffusion of Responsibility

6.3 Formal Organizations

6.3.1 Types of Formal Organizations

6.3.2 The McDonaldization of Society

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

7.1 Deviance and Control

7.1.1 Deviance, Crime, and Society

7.1.2 Social Control

7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime

7.2.1 Functionalism

7.2.2 Conflict Theory

7.2.3 Symbolic Interactionism

7.3 Crime and the Law

7.3.1 Types of Crimes

7.3.2 Crime Statistics

7.3.3 Public Perception of Crime

7.3.4 The U.S. Criminal Justice System

8 Media and Technology

8.1 Technology Today

8.1.1 What Is Technology?

8.2 Media and Technology in Society

8.2.1 Categorizing Technology

8.2.2 Types of Media and Technology

8.2.3 Product Advertising and the Attention Economy

Question	Answer
a social problem that is stated in a clear, easily understood manner	diagnostic framing
using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement	frame alignment process
a call to action	motivational framing
a theory that attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to understand using traditional social movement theories	new social movement theory
social movements that state a clear solution and a means of implementation	prognostic framing
a theory that explains social movements’ success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals	resource mobilization theory
the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals	social movement industry
the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals	social movement sector