Chinese, Mandarin

Spanish

English

Hindi

Arabic

Portuguese

Bengali

Russian

Japanese

Punjabi

German

Javanese

Malay

Telugu

Vietnamese

Korean

French

Marathi

Tamil

Urdu

Turkish

Italian

Chinese, Yue / Cantonese

Thai

Gujarati

Chinese, Jin

Chinese, Min Nan

Persian, Dari

Persian, Western

Polish

Pashto

Kannada

Chinese, Xiang

Malayalam

Sundanese

Hausa

Odia

Burmese

Chinese, Hakka

Ukrainian

Bihari, Bhojpuri

Tagalog

Yoruba

Bihari, Maithili

Uzbek

Sindhi

Amharic

Fula

Romanian

Oromo

Igbo

Azerbaijani

Chinese, Gan

Dutch

Kurdish, Central

Kurdish, Northern

Kurdish, Southern

Malagasy

Lahnda, Saraiki

Nepali

Sinhalese

Chittagonian

Zhuang

Khmer

Turkmen

Assamese

Madurese

Somali

Marwari

Bihari, Magahi

Haryanvi

Hungarian

Chhattisgarhi

Greek, Modern

Chewa

Dakhini

Akan, Twi

Akan, Fante

Kazakh

Chinese, Min Bei

Sylheti

Zulu

Czech

Kinyarwanda

Marwari, Dhundhari

Haitian Creole

Chinese, Min Dong

Ilocano

Quechua

Kirundi

Swedish

Hmong

Shona

Uyghur

Hiligaynon

Mossi

Xhosa

Belarusian

Balochi

Sociology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another global concern in education is <OpenstaxTerm>universal access</OpenstaxTerm>. This term refers to people’s equal ability to participate in an education system. On a world level, access might be more difficult for certain groups based on class or gender (as was the case in the United States earlier in the nation’s history, a dynamic we still struggle to overcome). The modern idea of universal access arose in the United States as a concern for people with disabilities. In the United States, one way in which universal education is supported is through federal and state governments covering the cost of free public education. Of course, the way this plays out in terms of school budgets and taxes makes this an often-contested topic on the national, state, and community levels.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="fs-idm221349312">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Rank
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				State
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Education Spending Per Student
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				1
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				New York
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$24,040
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				2
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				District of Columbia
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$22,759
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				3
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Connecticut
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$20,635
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				4
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				New Jersey
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$20,021
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				5
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Vermont
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$19,340
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				6
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Alaska
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$17,726
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				7
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Massachusetts
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$17,058
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				8
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				New Hampshire
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$16,893
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				9
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Pennsylvania
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$16,395
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				10
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Wyoming
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$16,224
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				11
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Rhode Island
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$16,121
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				12
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Illinois
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$15,741
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				13
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Delaware
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$15,639
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				14
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Hawaii
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$15,242
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				15
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Maryland
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$14,762
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				16
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Maine
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$14,145
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				17
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				North Dakota
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$13,758
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				18
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Ohio
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$13,027
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				19
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Washington
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,995
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				20
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Minnesota
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,975
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				21
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				California
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,498
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				22
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Nebraska
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,491
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				23
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Michigan
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,345
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				24
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Wisconsin
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,285
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				25
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Virginia
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$12,216
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				26
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Oregon
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,920
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				27
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Iowa
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,732
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				28
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Montana
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,680
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				29
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Kansas
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,653
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				30
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Louisiana
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,452
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				31
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				West Virginia
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,334
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				32
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Kentucky
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$11,110
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				33
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				South Carolina
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,856
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				34
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Missouri
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,810
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				34
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Georgia
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,810
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				36
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Indiana
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,262
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				37
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Colorado
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,202
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				38
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Arkansas
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,139
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				39
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				South Dakota
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$10,073
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				40
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Alabama
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,696
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				41
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Texas
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,606
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				42
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				New Mexico
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,582
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				43
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Tennessee
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,544
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				44
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Nevada
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,417
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				45
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				North Carolina
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,377
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				46
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Florida
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$9,346
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				47
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mississippi
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$8,935
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				48
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Oklahoma
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$8,239
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				49
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Arizona
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$8,239
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				50
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Idaho
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$7,771
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				51
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Utah
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				$7,628
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	<strong>Table 16.1</strong>  - How does state spending affect educational opportunities? (EducationData.org 2018)
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A precedent for universal access to education in the United States was set with the 1972 U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia’s decision in <OpenstaxEm>Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia</OpenstaxEm>. This case was brought on the behalf of seven school-age children with special needs who argued that the school board was denying their access to free public education. The school board maintained that the children’s “exceptional” needs, which included intellectual disabilities, precluded their right to be educated for free in a public school setting. The board argued that the cost of educating these children would be too expensive and that the children would therefore have to remain at home without access to education.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	This case was resolved in a hearing without any trial. The judge, Joseph Cornelius Waddy, upheld the students’ right to education, finding that they were to be given either public education services or private education paid for by the Washington, D.C., board of education. He noted that 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxBlockquote>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Constitutional rights must be afforded citizens despite the greater expense involved … the District of Columbia’s interest in educating the excluded children clearly must outweigh its interest in preserving its financial resources. … The inadequacies of the District of Columbia Public School System whether occasioned by insufficient funding or administrative inefficiency, certainly cannot be permitted to bear more heavily on the “exceptional” or handicapped child than on the normal child (<OpenstaxEm>Mills v. Board of Education</OpenstaxEm> 1972).
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxBlockquote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Today, the optimal way to include people with disabilities students in standard classrooms is still being researched and debated. “Inclusion” is a method that involves complete immersion in a standard classroom, whereas “mainstreaming” balances time in a special-needs classroom with standard classroom participation. There continues to be social debate surrounding how to implement the ideal of universal access to education. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>

16.1.2 Access to Education

1 An Introduction to Sociology

1.1 What Is Sociology?

1.1.1 What Are Society and Culture?

1.1.2 Studying Patterns: How Sociologists View Society

1.1.3 Studying Part and Whole: How Sociologists View Social Structures

1.2 The History of Sociology

1.2.1 Creating a Discipline: European Theorists

1.2.2 Applying the Discipline: American Theorists and Practitioners

1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1.3.1 Functionalism

1.3.2 Conflict Theory

1.3.3 Symbolic Interactionist Theory

1.3.4 Sociological Theory Today

1.4 Why Study Sociology?

1.4.1 Sociology and a Better Society

1.4.2 Sociology in the Workplace

2 Sociological Research

2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research

2.1.1 The Scientific Method

2.1.2 Interpretive Framework

2.1.3 Critical Sociology

2.2 Research Methods

2.2.1 Surveys

2.2.2 Field Research

2.2.3 Experiments

2.2.4 Secondary Data Analysis

2.3 Ethical Concerns

3 Culture

3.1 What Is Culture?

3.1.1 Cultural Universals

3.1.2 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

3.2 Elements of Culture

3.2.1 Values and Beliefs

3.2.2 Norms

3.2.3 Symbols and Culture

3.2.4 Language and Symbols

3.2.5 Language and Culture

3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change

3.3.1 High, Low, and Popular Culture

3.3.2 Subculture and Counterculture

3.3.3 Cultural Change

3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture

4 Society and Social Interaction

4.1 Types of Societies

4.1.1 Preindustrial Societies

4.1.2 Industrial Society

4.1.3 Postindustrial Society

4.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Society

4.2.1 Émile Durkheim and Functionalism

4.2.2 Karl Marx and Conflict Theory

4.2.3 Max Weber and Symbolic Interactionism

4.3 Social Constructions of Reality

4.3.1 Roles and Status

4.3.2 Presentation of Self

5 Socialization

5.1 Theories of Self-Development

5.1.1 Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development

5.1.2 Sociological Theories of Self-Development

5.2 Why Socialization Matters

5.2.1 Nature versus Nurture

5.3 Agents of Socialization

5.3.1 Social Group Agents

5.3.2 Institutional Agents

5.4 Socialization Across the Life Course

5.4.1 Resocialization

6 Groups and Organization

6.1 Types of Groups

6.1.1 Defining a Group

6.1.2 Types of Groups

6.1.3 In-Groups and Out-Groups

6.1.4 Reference Groups

6.2 Group Size and Structure

6.2.1 Dyads, Triads, and Large Groups

6.2.2 Group Leadership

6.2.3 Conformity

6.2.4 The Bystander Effect and Diffusion of Responsibility

6.3 Formal Organizations

6.3.1 Types of Formal Organizations

6.3.2 The McDonaldization of Society

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

7.1 Deviance and Control

7.1.1 Deviance, Crime, and Society

7.1.2 Social Control

7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime

7.2.1 Functionalism

7.2.2 Conflict Theory

7.2.3 Symbolic Interactionism

7.3 Crime and the Law

7.3.1 Types of Crimes

7.3.2 Crime Statistics

7.3.3 Public Perception of Crime

7.3.4 The U.S. Criminal Justice System

8 Media and Technology

8.1 Technology Today

8.1.1 What Is Technology?

8.2 Media and Technology in Society

8.2.1 Categorizing Technology

8.2.2 Types of Media and Technology

8.2.3 Product Advertising and the Attention Economy