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Sociology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Historical sociologists Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud anticipated secularization and claimed that the modernization of society would bring about a decrease in the influence of religion. Weber believed membership in distinguished clubs would outpace membership in Protestant sects as a way for people to gain authority or respect. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Conversely, some people suggest secularization is a root cause of many social problems, such as divorce, drug use, and educational downturn. One-time presidential contender Michele Bachmann even linked Hurricane Irene and the 2011 earthquake felt in Washington D.C. to politicians’ failure to listen to God (Ward 2011). Similar statements have been made about Hurricane Harvey being the result of Houston’s progressivism and for the city electing a lesbian mayor.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While some the United States seems to be increasingly secular, that change is occurring with a concurrent rise in fundamentalism. Compared to other democratic, industrialized countries, the United States is generally perceived to be a fairly religious nation. Whereas 65 percent of U.S. adults in a 2009 Gallup survey said religion was an important part of their daily lives, the numbers were lower in Spain (49 percent), Canada (42 percent), France (30 percent), the United Kingdom (27 percent), and Sweden (17 percent) (Crabtree and Pelham 2009).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Secularization interests social observers because it entails a pattern of change in a fundamental social institution. Much has been made about the rising number of people who identify as having no religious affiliation, which in a 2019 Pew Poll reached a new high of 26 percent, up from 17 percent in 2009 (Pew Research Center, 2020). But the motivations and meanings of having “no religion” vary significantly. A person who is a part of a religion may make a difficult decision to formally leave it based on disagreements with the organization or the tenets of the faith. Other people may simply “drift away,” and decide to no longer identify themselves as members of a religion. Some people are not raised as a part of a religion, and therefore make a decision whether or not to join one later in life. And finally, a growing number of people identify as spiritual but not religious (SBNR) and they may pray, meditate, and even celebrate holidays in ways quite similar to people affiliated with formal religions; they may also find spirituality through other avenues that range from nature to martial arts. Sociologists and other social scientists may study these motivations and their impact on aspects of individuals’ lives, as well as cultural and group implications.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In addition to the identification and change regarding people’s religious affiliation, religious observance is also interesting. Researchers analyze the depth of involvement in formal institutions, like attending worship, and informal or individual practices. As shown in <a href="#import-auto-id204147472">Table 15.2</a>, of the religions surveyed, members of the Jehovah's Witness religion attend religious services more regularly than members of other religions in the United States. A number of Protestant religions also have relatively high attendance. Regular attendance at services may play a role in building social structure and acceptance of new people into the general community.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="import-auto-id204147472">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Religious tradition
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				At least once a week
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Once or twice a month/a few times a year
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Seldom/never
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Buddhist
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				18%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				50%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				31%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Catholic
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				39%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				40%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				20%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Evangelical Protestant
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				58%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				30%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				12%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Hindu
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				18%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				60%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				21%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Historically Black Protestant
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				53%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				36%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				10%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Jehovah’s Witness
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				85%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				11%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				3%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Jewish
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				19%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				49%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				31%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mainline Protestant
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				33%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				43%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				24%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				77%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				14%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				9%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Muslim
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				45%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				31%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				22%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Orthodox Christian
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				31%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				54%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				15%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Unaffiliated (religious “nones”)
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				4%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				24%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				72%
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	Table 15.2 - A survey of U.S. adults asked about regularity of religious service attendance. (Credit: Pew Research Center, 2020)
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Sociology in the Real World </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Thank God for that Touchdown: Separation of Church and State </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Imagine three public universities with football games scheduled on Saturday. At University A, a group of students in the stands who share the same faith decide to form a circle amid the spectators to pray for the team. For fifteen minutes, people in the circle share their prayers aloud among their group. At University B, the team ahead at halftime decides to join together in prayer, giving thanks and seeking support from God. This lasts for the first ten minutes of halftime on the sidelines of the field while spectators watch. At University C, the game program includes, among its opening moments, two minutes set aside for the team captain to share a prayer of his choosing with the spectators. 
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		In the tricky area of separation of church and state, which of these actions is allowed and which is forbidden? In our three fictional scenarios, the last example is against the law while the first two situations are perfectly acceptable. 
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		In the United States, a nation founded on the principles of religious freedom (many settlers were escaping religious persecution in Europe), how stringently do we adhere to this ideal? How well do we respect people’s right to practice any belief system of their choosing? The answer just might depend on what religion you practice. 
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		In 2003, for example, a lawsuit escalated in Alabama regarding a monument to the Ten Commandments in a public building. In response, a poll was conducted by <OpenstaxEm>USA Today</OpenstaxEm>, CNN, and Gallup. Among the findings: 70 percent of people approved of a Christian Ten Commandments monument in public, while only 33 percent approved of a monument to the Islamic Qur’an in the same space. Similarly, survey respondents showed a 64 percent approval of social programs run by Christian organizations, but only 41 percent approved of the same programs run by Muslim groups (Newport 2003).
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		These statistics suggest that, for most people in the United States, freedom of religion is less important than the religion under discussion. And this is precisely the point made by those who argue for separation of church and state. According to their contention, any state-sanctioned recognition of religion suggests endorsement of one belief system at the expense of all others—contradictory to the idea of freedom of religion.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		So what violates separation of church and state and what is acceptable? Myriad lawsuits continue to test the answer. In the case of the three fictional examples above, the issue of spontaneity is key, as is the existence (or lack thereof) of planning on the part of event organizers. 
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		The next time you’re at a state event—political, public school, community—and the topic of religion comes up, consider where it falls in this debate.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

15.3.4 Secularization

1 An Introduction to Sociology

1.1 What Is Sociology?

1.1.1 What Are Society and Culture?

1.1.2 Studying Patterns: How Sociologists View Society

1.1.3 Studying Part and Whole: How Sociologists View Social Structures

1.2 The History of Sociology

1.2.1 Creating a Discipline: European Theorists

1.2.2 Applying the Discipline: American Theorists and Practitioners

1.3 Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1.3.1 Functionalism

1.3.2 Conflict Theory

1.3.3 Symbolic Interactionist Theory

1.3.4 Sociological Theory Today

1.4 Why Study Sociology?

1.4.1 Sociology and a Better Society

1.4.2 Sociology in the Workplace

2 Sociological Research

2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research

2.1.1 The Scientific Method

2.1.2 Interpretive Framework

2.1.3 Critical Sociology

2.2 Research Methods

2.2.1 Surveys

2.2.2 Field Research

2.2.3 Experiments

2.2.4 Secondary Data Analysis

2.3 Ethical Concerns

3 Culture

3.1 What Is Culture?

3.1.1 Cultural Universals

3.1.2 Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

3.2 Elements of Culture

3.2.1 Values and Beliefs

3.2.2 Norms

3.2.3 Symbols and Culture

3.2.4 Language and Symbols

3.2.5 Language and Culture

3.3 High, Low, Pop, Sub, Counter-culture and Cultural Change

3.3.1 High, Low, and Popular Culture

3.3.2 Subculture and Counterculture

3.3.3 Cultural Change

3.4 Theoretical Perspectives on Culture

4 Society and Social Interaction

4.1 Types of Societies

4.1.1 Preindustrial Societies

4.1.2 Industrial Society

4.1.3 Postindustrial Society

4.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Society

4.2.1 Émile Durkheim and Functionalism

4.2.2 Karl Marx and Conflict Theory

4.2.3 Max Weber and Symbolic Interactionism

4.3 Social Constructions of Reality

4.3.1 Roles and Status

4.3.2 Presentation of Self

5 Socialization

5.1 Theories of Self-Development

5.1.1 Psychological Perspectives on Self-Development

5.1.2 Sociological Theories of Self-Development

5.2 Why Socialization Matters

5.2.1 Nature versus Nurture

5.3 Agents of Socialization

5.3.1 Social Group Agents

5.3.2 Institutional Agents

5.4 Socialization Across the Life Course

5.4.1 Resocialization

6 Groups and Organization

6.1 Types of Groups

6.1.1 Defining a Group

6.1.2 Types of Groups

6.1.3 In-Groups and Out-Groups

6.1.4 Reference Groups

6.2 Group Size and Structure

6.2.1 Dyads, Triads, and Large Groups

6.2.2 Group Leadership

6.2.3 Conformity

6.2.4 The Bystander Effect and Diffusion of Responsibility

6.3 Formal Organizations

6.3.1 Types of Formal Organizations

6.3.2 The McDonaldization of Society

7 Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

7.1 Deviance and Control

7.1.1 Deviance, Crime, and Society

7.1.2 Social Control

7.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Deviance and Crime

7.2.1 Functionalism

7.2.2 Conflict Theory

7.2.3 Symbolic Interactionism

7.3 Crime and the Law

7.3.1 Types of Crimes

7.3.2 Crime Statistics

7.3.3 Public Perception of Crime

7.3.4 The U.S. Criminal Justice System

8 Media and Technology

8.1 Technology Today

8.1.1 What Is Technology?

8.2 Media and Technology in Society

8.2.1 Categorizing Technology

8.2.2 Types of Media and Technology

8.2.3 Product Advertising and the Attention Economy