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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Adulthood begins around 20 years old and has three distinct stages: early, middle, and late. Each stage brings its own set of rewards and challenges.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Physical Development</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the time we reach early adulthood (20 to early 40s), our physical maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase slightly. In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage. People often carry and give birth to children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s (<a href="#Figure_09_04_Exercise">Figure 9.18</a>). Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Fertility gradually declines with the approach to the onset of menopause, the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Middle adulthood tends toward weight gain: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_09_04_Exercise" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/aa3e0e8f5e68d66c736737cd0f1d1474afce2e8f" alt="A picture shows a person in a harness ascending a climbing wall." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="325" height="242" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="325">
	Figure 9.18 Physical declines of middle and late adulthood can be minimized with proper exercise, nutrition, and an active lifestyle. (credit: modification of work by Peter Stevens)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Late adulthood is considered to extend from the 60s on. This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease in later years.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Aging doesn’t mean a person can’t explore new pursuits, learn new skills, and continue to grow. Watch this inspiring <a href="http://openstax.org/l/Unger">story about Neil Unger who is a newbie to the world of skateboarding at 60 years old</a> to learn more.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxH3>Cognitive Development</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Because we spend so many years in adulthood (more than any other stage), cognitive changes are numerous. In fact, research suggests that adult cognitive development is a complex, ever changing process that may be even more active than cognitive development in infancy and early childhood (Fischer, Yan, &amp; Stewart, 2003).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		There is good news for the middle age brain. View this <a href="http://openstax.org/l/oldbrain">brief video about the middle age brain</a> to find out what it is.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Unlike our physical abilities, which peak in our mid-20s and then begin a slow decline, our cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early and middle adulthood. Our crystallized intelligence (information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience) tends to hold steady as we age—it may even improve. For example, adults show relatively stable to increasing scores on intelligence tests until their mid-30s to mid-50s (Bayley &amp; Oden, 1955). However, in late adulthood we begin to experience a decline in another area of our cognitive abilities—fluid intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory). These processes become slower. How can we delay the onset of cognitive decline? Mental and physical activity seems to play a part (<a href="#Figure_09_04_Cognitive">Figure 9.19</a>). Research has found adults who engage in mentally and physically stimulating activities experience less cognitive decline and have a reduced incidence of mild cognitive impairment and dementia (Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, &amp; Lindenberger, 2009; Larson et al., 2006; Podewils et al., 2005).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_09_04_Cognitive" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/78a9b1d2c3497a6a77b53116e210a9cbcda232b9" alt="A picture shows three people at a table leaning over a board game." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="325" height="217" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="325">
	Figure 9.19 Cognitive activities such as playing mahjong, chess, or other games, can keep you mentally fit. The same is true for solo pastimes like reading and completing crossword puzzles. (credit: Philippe Put)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Researchers have examined the aging brain by comparing it to brain functioning in younger people. Forstmann and colleagues (2011) compared elderly participants to younger participants, who in the study were asked to report the direction of movement of a set of dots. They were given feedback regarding speed and accuracy. The researchers found that older participants made more errors and were slower due to degeneration of corticostriatal connections. In other words, the decreased ability typically assigned to elderly people may be due to circumstances in the brain beyond their control. Interestingly, other researchers have found similarities in spatial representations when comparing children aged 6–7 to those over the age of 80. Ruggiero, D’Errico, and Iachini (2016) reported that this is due to neurodegeneration in older adults and immature neurology in young children.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Many elderly people experience dementia, changes in the brain that negatively affect cognition. Alzheimer’s disease is one type of dementia, initially studied by medical researcher Solomon Carter Fuller. Alzheimer’s disease has a genetic basis. Plaques in the brain are due to cell death, which then causes those affected with the disease severe forgetfulness. A person can forget how to walk, talk, and eventually eat. The disease can be mitigated by assessing environmental factors (exposure to lead, iron, and zinc increase risk) and nutritional factors (the Mediterranean diet lowers risk) (Arora, Mittal, &amp; Kakkar, 2015). Although there is no cure, there is hope. Cognitive rehabilitation can offset mild cognitive impairment, as it can evolve into dementia. Garcia-Betances, Jimenez-Mixco, Arredondo, and Cabrera-Umpierrez (2015) examined the use of virtual reality as a possible cognitive rehabilitative method. They suggested that virtual reality technology should involve daily living activities, memory, and language, among other considerations.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Psychosocial Development</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	There are many theories about the social and emotional aspects of aging. Some aspects of healthy aging include activities, social connectedness, and the role of a person’s culture. According to many theorists, including George Vaillant (2002), who studied and analyzed over 50 years of data, we need to have and continue to find meaning throughout our lives. For those in early and middle adulthood, meaning is found through work (Sterns &amp; Huyck, 2001) and family life (Markus, Ryff, Curan, &amp; Palmersheim, 2004). These areas relate to the tasks that Erikson referred to as generativity and intimacy. As mentioned previously, adults tend to define themselves by what they do—their careers. Earnings peak during this time, yet job satisfaction is more closely tied to work that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides opportunities for advancement, and allows some independence (Mohr &amp; Zoghi, 2006) than it is to salary (Iyengar, Wells, &amp; Schwartz, 2006). How might being unemployed or being in a dead-end job challenge adult well-being?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have been found to contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff &amp; Singer, 2009). Most adults in the United States identify themselves through their relationships with family—particularly with spouses, children, and parents (Markus et al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful, especially when they are young, research suggests that parents reap the rewards down the road, as adult children tend to have a positive effect on parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, &amp; Reczek, 2010). Having a stable marriage has also been found to contribute to well-being throughout adulthood (Vaillant, 2002).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness and social support. As we get older, <OpenstaxTerm>socioemotional selectivity theory</OpenstaxTerm> suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years (Carstensen, 1992) (<a href="#Figure_09_04_Support">Figure 9.20</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_09_04_Support" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/344a58d666f4c32d15434b7d92740212c19f7d06" alt="Four people are sitting on a bench looking off in the same direction." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="325" height="217" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="325">
	Figure 9.20 Social support is important as we age. (credit: Gabriel Rocha)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Read the <a href="http://openstax.org/l/wheniamold">poem “When I Am Old” by Jenny Joseph</a> to see a humorous and heartfelt approach to aging.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		View this <a href="http://openstax.org/l/aginginusa">video about aging in America</a> to learn more.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

9.3.4 Adulthood

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception