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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	When you are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A <OpenstaxTerm>problem-solving strategy</OpenstaxTerm> is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them (<a href="#Table_07_03_01">Table 7.2</a>). For example, a well-known strategy is <OpenstaxTerm>trial and error</OpenstaxTerm>. The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="Table_07_03_01">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Method
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Description
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Example
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Trial and error
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to determine why your phone is malfunctioning
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Algorithm
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Step-by-step problem-solving formula
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Instructional video for installing new software on your computer
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Heuristic
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				General problem-solving framework 
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Working backwards; breaking a task into steps
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	Table 7.2 Problem-Solving Strategies
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An <OpenstaxTerm>algorithm</OpenstaxTerm> is a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in which algorithms are used?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a <OpenstaxTerm>heuristic</OpenstaxTerm> is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky &amp; Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		When one is faced with too much information
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		When the time to make a decision is limited
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		When the decision to be made is unimportant
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Working backwards</OpenstaxTerm> is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. Consider this example: You live in Washington, D.C. and have been invited to a wedding at 4 PM on Saturday in Philadelphia. Knowing that Interstate 95 tends to back up any day of the week, you need to plan your route and time your departure accordingly. If you want to be at the wedding service by 3:30 PM, and it takes 2.5 hours to get to Philadelphia without traffic, what time should you leave your house? You use the working backwards heuristic to plan the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project or long essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small steps.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Everyday Connection </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Solving Puzzles </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below (<a href="#Figure_07_03_Sudoku">Figure 7.7</a>) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a classmate.
	</OpenstaxParagraph><OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_07_03_Sudoku" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/01777a6ec1d560e341c4b2a872f4a72a25d502d9" alt="A four column by four row Sudoku puzzle is shown. The top left cell contains the number 3. The top right cell contains the number 2. The bottom right cell contains the number 1. The bottom left cell contains the number 4. The cell at the intersection of the second row and the second column contains the number 4. The cell to the right of that contains the number 1. The cell below the cell containing the number 1 contains the number 2. The cell to the left of the cell containing the number 2 contains the number 3." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="487" height="487" />
	<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
		Figure 7.7 How long did it take you to solve this sudoku puzzle? (You can see the answer at the end of this section.)
	</OpenstaxFigureText>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Here is another popular type of puzzle (<a href="#Figure_07_03_DotsAndLines">Figure 7.8</a>) that challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:
	</OpenstaxParagraph><OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_07_03_DotsAndLines" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/949ef1107fff17aec65765441135ef5f62dcf1ba" alt="A square shaped outline contains three rows and three columns of dots with equal space between them." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="486" height="489" />
	<OpenstaxFigureText width="486">
		Figure 7.8 Did you figure it out? (The answer is at the end of this section.) Once you understand how to crack this puzzle, you won’t forget.
	</OpenstaxFigureText>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below (<a href="#Figure_07_03_SamLoyd">Figure 7.9</a>). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime (Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).
	</OpenstaxParagraph><OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_07_03_SamLoyd" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/aa3f8f51a2ad397b0b49b42835e93909b1a71558" alt="A puzzle involving a scale is shown. At the top of the figure it reads: “Sam Loyds Puzzling Scales.” The first row of the puzzle shows a balanced scale with 3 blocks and a top on the left and 12 marbles on the right. Below this row it reads: “Since the scales now balance.” The next row of the puzzle shows a balanced scale with just the top on the left, and 1 block and 8 marbles on the right. Below this row it reads: “And balance when arranged this way.” The third row shows an unbalanced scale with the top on the left side, which is much lower than the right side. The right side is empty. Below this row it reads: “Then how many marbles will it require to balance with that top?”" mediaType="image/jpeg" width="488" height="689" />
	<OpenstaxFigureText width="488">
		Figure 7.9 What steps did you take to solve this puzzle? You can read the solution at the end of this section.
	</OpenstaxFigureText>
</OpenstaxNote>

7.3.1 Problem-Solving Strategies

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions	algorithm
mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem	heuristic
method for solving problems	problem-solving strategy
problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found	trial and error
heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result	working backwards