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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the end of this section, you will be able to:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Define operant conditioning
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Distinguish between reinforcement schedules
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The previous section of this chapter focused on the type of associative learning known as classical conditioning. Remember that in classical conditioning, something in the environment triggers a reflex automatically, and researchers train the organism to react to a different stimulus. Now we turn to the second type of associative learning, <OpenstaxTerm>operant conditioning</OpenstaxTerm>. In operant conditioning, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence (<a href="#fs-idp18763408">Table 6.1</a>). A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future. For example, Spirit, a dolphin at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, does a flip in the air when her trainer blows a whistle. The consequence is that she gets a fish.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="fs-idp18763408">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh /> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Classical Conditioning
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Operant Conditioning
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Conditioning approach
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation).
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Stimulus timing
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	Table 6.1 Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Psychologist B. F. <OpenstaxTerm>Skinner</OpenstaxTerm> saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn’t account for new behaviors such as riding a bike. He proposed a theory about how such behaviors come about. Skinner believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments. His idea that learning is the result of consequences is based on the law of effect, which was first proposed by psychologist Edward <OpenstaxTerm>Thorndike</OpenstaxTerm>. According to the <OpenstaxTerm>law of effect</OpenstaxTerm>, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Essentially, if an organism does something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again. If an organism does something that does not bring about a desired result, the organism is less likely to do it again. An example of the law of effect is in employment. One of the reasons (and often the main reason) we show up for work is because we get paid to do so. If we stop getting paid, we will likely stop showing up—even if we love our job.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Working with Thorndike’s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938). He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber, which has come to be known as a “Skinner box” (<a href="#Figure06_03_Skinnerbox">Figure 6.10</a>). A Skinner box contains a lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated with certain behaviors. A recorder counts the number of responses made by the animal.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure06_03_Skinnerbox" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/2051c7ae5778252ca821a43e7eb76bb7bb49f088" alt="A photograph shows B.F. Skinner. An illustration shows a rat in a Skinner box: a chamber with a speaker, lights, a lever, and a food dispenser." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="649" height="255" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="649">
	Figure 6.10 (a) B. F. Skinner developed operant conditioning for systematic study of how behaviors are strengthened or weakened according to their consequences. (b) In a Skinner box, a rat presses a lever in an operant conditioning chamber to receive a food reward. (credit a: modification of work by "Silly rabbit"/Wikimedia Commons)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Watch this brief <a href="http://openstax.org/l/skinner1">video to see Skinner's interview and a demonstration of operant conditioning of pigeons</a> to learn more.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday words—positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment—in a specialized manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good and bad. Instead, <OpenstaxEm>positive</OpenstaxEm> means you are adding something, and <OpenstaxEm>negative</OpenstaxEm> means you are taking something away. <OpenstaxEm>Reinforcement</OpenstaxEm> means you are increasing a behavior, and <OpenstaxEm>punishment</OpenstaxEm> means you are decreasing a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative) <OpenstaxEm>increase</OpenstaxEm> the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishers (positive or negative) <OpenstaxEm>decrease</OpenstaxEm> the likelihood of a behavioral response. Now let’s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment (<a href="#fs-idm23618624">Table 6.2</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="fs-idm23618624">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh /> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Reinforcement
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Punishment
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Positive
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Something is <OpenstaxEm>added</OpenstaxEm> to <OpenstaxEm>increase</OpenstaxEm> the likelihood of a behavior.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Something is <OpenstaxEm>added</OpenstaxEm> to <OpenstaxEm>decrease</OpenstaxEm> the likelihood of a behavior.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Negative
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Something is <OpenstaxEm>removed</OpenstaxEm> to <OpenstaxEm>increase</OpenstaxEm> the likelihood of a behavior.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Something is <OpenstaxEm>removed</OpenstaxEm> to <OpenstaxEm>decrease</OpenstaxEm> the likelihood of a behavior.
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	Table 6.2 Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
</OpenstaxTableTitle>

6.3 Operant Conditioning

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged	law of effect
form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated	operant conditioning