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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the end of this section, you will be able to:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Explain how classical conditioning occurs
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Summarize the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Does the name Ivan <OpenstaxTerm>Pavlov</OpenstaxTerm> ring a bell? Even if you are new to the study of psychology, chances are that you have heard of Pavlov and his famous dogs.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical <OpenstaxTerm>conditioning</OpenstaxTerm> (<a href="#Figure06_02_Pavlov">Figure 6.3</a>). As we discussed briefly in the previous section, <OpenstaxTerm>classical conditioning</OpenstaxTerm> is a process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure06_02_Pavlov" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/f6cb2e0bcfbef3e36ec9ce897debc22e8d56db44" alt="A portrait shows Ivan Pavlov." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="244" height="344" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="244">
	<strong>Figure 6.3</strong> Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by accident. Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist. Physiologists study the life processes of organisms, from the molecular level to the level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms. Pavlov’s area of interest was the digestive system (Hunt, 2007). In his studies with dogs, Pavlov measured the amount of saliva produced in response to various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl, and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to food in the mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don’t naturally salivate at the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	These unusual responses intrigued Pavlov, and he wondered what accounted for what he called the dogs' “psychic secretions” (Pavlov, 1927). To explore this phenomenon in an objective manner, Pavlov designed a series of carefully controlled experiments to see which stimuli would cause the dogs to salivate. He was able to train the dogs to salivate in response to stimuli that clearly had nothing to do with food, such as the sound of a bell, a light, and a touch on the leg. Through his experiments, Pavlov realized that an organism has two types of responses to its environment: (1) unconditioned (unlearned) responses, or reflexes, and (2) conditioned (learned) responses.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In Pavlov’s experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was presented to them. The meat powder in this situation was an <OpenstaxTerm>unconditioned stimulus (UCS)</OpenstaxTerm>: a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs’ salivation was an <OpenstaxTerm>unconditioned response (UCR)</OpenstaxTerm>: a natural (unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. Before conditioning, think of the dogs’ stimulus and response like this:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxMath display="block">
	<OpenstaxMrow>
		 
		<OpenstaxMtext>
			Meat powder (UCS) 
		</OpenstaxMtext>
		<OpenstaxMo stretchy="false">
			→
		</OpenstaxMo>
		<OpenstaxMtext>
			 Salivation (UCR)
		</OpenstaxMtext> 
	</OpenstaxMrow>
</OpenstaxMath>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately before an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder (<a href="#Figure06_02_Classical">Figure 6.4</a>). The tone was the <OpenstaxTerm>neutral stimulus (NS)</OpenstaxTerm>, which is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not salivate when they just heard the tone because the tone had no association for the dogs.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxMath display="block">
	<OpenstaxMrow>
		<OpenstaxMrow>
			 
			<OpenstaxMtext>
				Tone (NS) + Meat Powder (UCS) 
			</OpenstaxMtext>
			<OpenstaxMo stretchy="false">
				→
			</OpenstaxMo>
			<OpenstaxMtext>
				 Salivation (UCR)
			</OpenstaxMtext>
		</OpenstaxMrow> 
	</OpenstaxMrow>
</OpenstaxMath>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again, the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the <OpenstaxTerm>conditioned stimulus (CS)</OpenstaxTerm>, which is a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the tone alone, just as they previously had salivated at the sound of the assistants’ footsteps. The behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus is called the <OpenstaxTerm>conditioned response (CR)</OpenstaxTerm>. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, they had learned to associate the tone (CS) with being fed, and they began to salivate (CR) in anticipation of food.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxMath display="block">
	<OpenstaxMrow>
		 
		<OpenstaxMtext>
			Tone (CS) 
		</OpenstaxMtext>
		<OpenstaxMo stretchy="false">
			→
		</OpenstaxMo>
		<OpenstaxMtext>
			 Salivation (CR)
		</OpenstaxMtext> 
	</OpenstaxMrow>
</OpenstaxMath>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure06_02_Classical" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/0a68ead5badfa5d1dd5c6f501ed8f264ca3dacaf" alt="Two illustrations are labeled “before conditioning” and show a dog salivating over a dish of food, and a dog not salivating while a bell is rung. An illustration labeled “during conditioning” shows a dog salivating over a bowl of food while a bell is rung. An illustration labeled “after conditioning” shows a dog salivating while a bell is rung." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="731" height="547" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="731">
	<strong>Figure 6.4</strong> Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell) does not produce a response. During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus (bell). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned stimulus.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		View this <a href="http://openstax.org/l/pavlov2">video about Pavlov and his dogs</a> to learn more.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

6.2 Classical Conditioning

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior	classical conditioning
response caused by the conditioned stimulus	conditioned response (CR)
stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus	conditioned stimulus (CS)
stimulus that does not initially elicit a response	neutral stimulus (NS)
natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus	unconditioned response (UCR)
stimulus that elicits a reflexive response	unconditioned stimulus (UCS)