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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the end of this section, you will be able to:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Explain the figure-ground relationship
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Define Gestalt principles of grouping
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Describe how perceptual set is influenced by an individual’s characteristics and mental state
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the early part of the 20th century, Max Wertheimer published a paper demonstrating that individuals perceived motion in rapidly flickering static images—an insight that came to him as he used a child’s toy tachistoscope. Wertheimer, and his assistants Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka, who later became his partners, believed that perception involved more than simply combining sensory stimuli. This belief led to a new movement within the field of psychology known as <OpenstaxTerm>Gestalt psychology</OpenstaxTerm>. The word <OpenstaxEm>gestalt </OpenstaxEm>literally means form or pattern, but its use reflects the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. In other words, the brain creates a perception that is more than simply the sum of available sensory inputs, and it does so in predictable ways. Gestalt psychologists translated these predictable ways into principles by which we organize sensory information. As a result, Gestalt psychology has been extremely influential in the area of sensation and perception (Rock &amp; Palmer, 1990).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	One Gestalt principle is the <OpenstaxTerm>figure-ground relationship</OpenstaxTerm>. According to this principle, we tend to segment our visual world into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background. As <a href="#Figure_05_06_FacesVase">Figure 5.25</a> shows, our perception can vary tremendously, depending on what is perceived as figure and what is perceived as ground. Presumably, our ability to interpret sensory information depends on what we label as figure and what we label as ground in any particular case, although this assumption has been called into question (Peterson &amp; Gibson, 1994; Vecera &amp; O’Reilly, 1998).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_05_06_FacesVase" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/2e355930e719bff08202ad12c00275e674fca248" alt="An illustration shows two identical black face-like shapes that face towards one another, and one white vase-like shape that occupies all of the space in between them. Depending on which part of the illustration is focused on, either the black shapes or the white shape may appear to be the object of the illustration, leaving the other(s) perceived as negative space." mediaType="image/jpg" width="488" height="471" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="488">
	Figure 5.25 The concept of figure-ground relationship explains why this image can be perceived either as a vase or as a pair of faces.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another Gestalt principle for organizing sensory stimuli into meaningful perception is <OpenstaxTerm>proximity</OpenstaxTerm>. This principle asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together, as <a href="#Figure_05_06_Proximity">Figure 5.26</a> illustrates.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_05_06_Proximity" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/af46593f4a3e8b302acc1e3f2e9798c8261da16e" alt="Illustration A shows thirty-six dots in six evenly-spaced rows and columns. Illustration B shows thirty-six dots in six evenly-spaced rows but with the columns separated into three sets of two columns." mediaType="image/jpg" width="487" height="243" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	Figure 5.26 The Gestalt principle of proximity suggests that you see (a) one block of dots on the left side and (b) three columns on the right side.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	How we read something provides another illustration of the proximity concept. For example, we read this sentence like this, notl iket hiso rt hat. We group the letters of a given word together because there are no spaces between the letters, and we perceive words because there are spaces between each word. Here are some more examples: Cany oum akes enseo ft hiss entence? What doth es e wor dsmea n?
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	We might also use the principle of <OpenstaxTerm>similarity</OpenstaxTerm> to group things in our visual fields. According to this principle, things that are alike tend to be grouped together (<a href="#Figure_05_06_Similarity">Figure 5.27</a>). For example, when watching a football game, we tend to group individuals based on the colors of their uniforms. When watching an offensive drive, we can get a sense of the two teams simply by grouping along this dimension.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_05_06_Similarity" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/3aba97ac20c66c942f180a8326cbdfa646996053" alt="An illustration shows six rows of six dots each. The rows of dots alternate between blue and white colored dots." mediaType="image/jpg" width="298" height="299" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="298">
	Figure 5.27 When looking at this array of dots, we likely perceive alternating rows of colors. We are grouping these dots according to the principle of similarity.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Two additional Gestalt principles are the law of <OpenstaxTerm>continuity </OpenstaxTerm>(or <OpenstaxTerm>good continuation</OpenstaxTerm>) and <OpenstaxTerm>closure</OpenstaxTerm>. The law of continuity suggests that we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines (<a href="#Figure_05_06_Continuity">Figure 5.28</a>). The <OpenstaxTerm>principle of closure</OpenstaxTerm> states that we organize our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts (<a href="#Figure_05_06_Closure">Figure 5.29</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_05_06_Continuity" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/0f181d7646b12f1d566c86050361241486f2c192" alt="An illustration shows two lines of diagonal dots that cross in the middle in the general shape of an “X.”" mediaType="image/jpg" width="487" height="509" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	Figure 5.28 Good continuation would suggest that we are more likely to perceive this as two overlapping lines, rather than four lines meeting in the center.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_05_06_Closure" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/e25c13a43bafbaf9378488b32362f73493537eae" alt="An illustration shows fragmented lines that would form a circle if they were connected. Another illustration shows fragmented lines that would form a square if they were connected." mediaType="image/jpg" width="487" height="187" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	Figure 5.29 Closure suggests that we will perceive a complete circle and rectangle rather than a series of segments.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Watch this <a href="http://openstax.org/l/gestalt">video showing real world examples of Gestalt principles</a> to learn more.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	According to Gestalt theorists, <OpenstaxTerm>pattern perception</OpenstaxTerm>, or our ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes, occurs by following the principles described above. You probably feel fairly certain that your perception accurately matches the real world, but this is not always the case. Our perceptions are based on <OpenstaxTerm>perceptual hypotheses</OpenstaxTerm>: educated guesses that we make while interpreting sensory information. These hypotheses are informed by a number of factors, including our personalities, experiences, and expectations. We use these hypotheses to generate our perceptual set. For instance, research has demonstrated that those who are given verbal priming produce a biased interpretation of complex ambiguous figures (Goolkasian &amp; Woodberry, 2010).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Dig Deeper </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> The Depths of Perception: Bias, Prejudice, and Cultural Factors </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		In this chapter, you have learned that perception is a complex process. Built from sensations, but influenced by our own experiences, biases, prejudices, and <OpenstaxTerm>cultures</OpenstaxTerm>, perceptions can be very different from person to person. Research suggests that implicit racial <OpenstaxTerm>prejudice</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>stereotypes</OpenstaxTerm> affect perception. For instance, several studies have demonstrated that non-Black participants identify weapons faster and are more likely to identify non-weapons as weapons when the image of the weapon is paired with the image of a Black person (Payne, 2001; Payne, Shimizu, &amp; Jacoby, 2005). Furthermore, White individuals’ decisions to shoot an armed target in a video game is made more quickly when the target is Black (Correll, Park, Judd, &amp; Wittenbrink, 2002; Correll, Urland, &amp; Ito, 2006). This research is important, considering the number of very high-profile cases in the last few decades in which Black people were killed by people who claimed to believe that the unarmed individuals were armed and/or represented some threat to their personal safety.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

5.6 Gestalt Principles of Perception

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
two-eared cue to localize sound	binaural cue
cue that relies on the use of both eyes	binocular cue
organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts	closure
electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain	cochlear implant
specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color	cone
genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain	congenital insensitivity to pain (congenital analgesia)
logarithmic unit of sound intensity	decibel (dB)
segmenting our visual world into figure and ground	figure-ground relationship
field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts	Gestalt psychology
(also, continuity) we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines	good continuation
auditory receptor cell of the inner ear	hair cell
difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli	just noticeable difference
perception of the body’s movement through space	kinesthesia
touch receptor that responds to pressure and lower frequency vibrations	Meissner’s corpuscle
touch receptor that responds to light touch	Merkel’s disk
one-eared cue to localize sound	monaural cue
cue that requires only one eye	monocular cue
color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green	opponent-process theory of color perception
touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations	Pacinian corpuscle
ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes	pattern perception
(also, crest) highest point of a wave	peak
educated guess used to interpret sensory information	perceptual hypothesis
chemical message sent by another individual	pheromone
different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies	place theory of pitch perception
organize perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts	principle of closure
perception of body position	proprioception
things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together	proximity
specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions	rod
touch receptor that detects stretch	Ruffini corpuscle
things that are alike tend to be grouped together	similarity
message presented below the threshold of conscious awareness	subliminal message
grouping of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the taste bud	taste bud
sound’s frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron	temporal theory of pitch perception
color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones	trichromatic theory of color perception
lowest point of a wave	trough