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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>pituitary gland</OpenstaxTerm> descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland” because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Located in the neck, the <OpenstaxTerm>thyroid gland</OpenstaxTerm> releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite. In hyperthyroidism, the thyroid secretes too much of the hormone thyroxine, causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss. One cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves' disease, an autoimmune disease in which one’s own body attacks itself. In hypothyroidism, reduced hormone levels cause sufferers to experience tiredness, and they often complain of feeling cold. Fortunately, thyroid disorders are often treatable with medications that help reestablish a balance in the hormones secreted by the thyroid.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>adrenal glands</OpenstaxTerm> sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The <OpenstaxTerm>pancreas</OpenstaxTerm> is an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon). People who suffer from <OpenstaxTerm>diabetes</OpenstaxTerm> do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they must closely control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they consume.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>gonads</OpenstaxTerm> secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior. The female gonads are the ovaries; the male gonads are the testes. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes secrete androgens, such as testosterone.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="Table_03_05_01">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Endocrine Gland
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Associated Hormones
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Function
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Pituitary
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Growth hormone, releasing and inhibiting hormones (such as thyroid stimulating hormone)
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Regulate growth, regulate hormone release
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Thyroid
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Thyroxine, triiodothyronine
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Regulate metabolism and appetite
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Pineal
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Melatonin
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Regulate some biological rhythms such as sleep cycles
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Adrenal
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Epinephrine, norepinephrine
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Stress response, increase metabolic activities
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Pancreas
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Insulin, glucagon
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Regulate blood sugar levels
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Ovaries
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Estrogen, progesterone 
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mediate sexual motivation and behavior, reproduction
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Testes
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Androgens, such as testosterone
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mediate sexual motivation and behavior, reproduction
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	<strong>Table 3.2</strong> Major Endocrine Glands and Associated Hormone Functions
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Dig Deeper </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Athletes and Anabolic Steroids </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Although it is against Federal laws and many professional athletic associations (The National Football League, for example) have banned their use, anabolic steroid drugs continue to be used by amateur and professional athletes. The drugs are believed to enhance athletic performance. Anabolic steroid drugs mimic the effects of the body’s own steroid hormones, like testosterone and its derivatives. These drugs have the potential to provide a competitive edge by increasing muscle mass, strength, and endurance, although not all users may experience these results. Moreover, use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) does not come without risks. Anabolic steroid use has been linked with a wide variety of potentially negative outcomes, ranging in severity from largely cosmetic (acne) to life threatening (heart attack). Furthermore, use of these substances can result in profound changes in mood and can increase aggressive behavior (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001).
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Baseball player Alex Rodriguez (A-Rod) spent the latter part of his playing career at the center of a media storm regarding his use of illegal PEDs. Rodriguez excelled while using the drugs; his success played a large role in negotiating a contract that made him the highest paid player in professional baseball. A subsequent scandal and suspension tarnished his reputation and, according to a statement he made once retired, cost him over $40 million. Even lower-profile athletes, particularly in cycling and Olympic sports, have been revealed as steroid users. What are your thoughts on athletes and doping? Why should the use of PEDs be banned or not banned? What advice would you give an athlete who was considering using PEDs?
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

3.5.1 Major Glands

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

5.4.3 Sound Localization

Question	Answer
sits atop our kidneys and secretes hormones involved in the stress response	adrenal gland
drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter	agonist
long strand of genetic information	chromosome
branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons	dendrite
disease related to insufficient insulin production	diabetes
sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics	gene
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport	glial cell
secretes sexual hormones, which are important for successful reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior	gonad
(plural: gyri) bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex	gyrus
left or right half of the brain	hemisphere
chemical messenger released by endocrine glands	hormone
chemical messenger of the nervous system	neurotransmitter
secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar	pancreas
secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the activity of other glands in the endocrine system	pituitary gland
involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain	positron emission tomography (PET) scan
drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance	psychotropic medication
protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach	receptor
(plural: sulci) depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex	sulcus
storage site for neurotransmitters	synaptic vesicle
axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles	terminal button
secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite	thyroid