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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>midbrain</OpenstaxTerm> is comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain. The <OpenstaxTerm>reticular formation</OpenstaxTerm> is centered in the midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain. The reticular formation is important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>substantia nigra</OpenstaxTerm> (Latin for “black substance”) and the <OpenstaxTerm>ventral tegmental area (VTA)</OpenstaxTerm> are also located in the midbrain (<a href="#CNX_Psych_03_04_Midbrain">Figure 3.24</a>). Both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical for movement. Degeneration of the substantia nigra and VTA is involved in Parkinson’s disease. In addition, these structures are involved in mood, reward, and addiction (Berridge &amp; Robinson, 1998; Gardner, 2011; George, Le Moal, &amp; Koob, 2012).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="CNX_Psych_03_04_Midbrain" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/337fdcd223701f361fdfadad21daf30b4d1f2d16" alt="An illustration shows the location of the substantia nigra and VTA in the brain." mediaType="image/jpg" width="487" height="408" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	<strong>Figure 3.24</strong> The substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (VTA) are located in the midbrain.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>hindbrain</OpenstaxTerm> is located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord. It contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum (<a href="#CNX_Psych_03_04_Hindbrain">Figure 3.25</a>). The <OpenstaxTerm>medulla</OpenstaxTerm> controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. The word pons literally means “bridge,” and as the name suggests, the <OpenstaxTerm>pons</OpenstaxTerm> serves to connect the hindbrain to the rest of the brain. It also is involved in regulating brain activity during sleep. The medulla, pons, and various structures are known as the brainstem, and aspects of the brainstem span both the midbrain and the hindbrain.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="CNX_Psych_03_04_Hindbrain" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/65464fa12d5227ff86ddd50d7fad104091614192" alt="An illustration shows the location of the pons, medulla, and cerebellum." mediaType="image/jpg" width="487" height="408" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	<strong>Figure 3.25</strong> The pons, medulla, and cerebellum make up the hindbrain.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>cerebellum</OpenstaxTerm> (Latin for “little brain”) receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills. The cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing some types of memories. In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved in learning and remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be associated with the cerebellum. Recall that H. M. was unable to form new explicit memories, but he could learn new tasks. This is likely due to the fact that H. M.’s cerebellum remained intact.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> What Do You Think? </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Brain Dead and on Life Support </OpenstaxH3>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		What would you do if your spouse or loved one was declared brain dead but their body was being kept alive by medical equipment? Whose decision should it be to remove a feeding tube? Should medical care costs be a factor?
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		On February 25, 1990, a Florida woman named Terri <OpenstaxTerm>Schiavo</OpenstaxTerm> went into cardiac arrest, apparently triggered by a bulimic episode. She was eventually revived, but her brain had been deprived of oxygen for a long time. Brain scans indicated that there was no activity in her cerebral cortex, and she suffered from severe and permanent cerebral atrophy. Basically, Schiavo was in a vegetative state. Medical professionals determined that she would never again be able to move, talk, or respond in any way. To remain alive, she required a feeding tube, and there was no chance that her situation would ever improve.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		On occasion, Schiavo’s eyes would move, and sometimes she would groan. Despite the doctors’ insistence to the contrary, her parents believed that these were signs that she was trying to communicate with them.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		After 12 years, Schiavo’s husband argued that his wife would not have wanted to be kept alive with no feelings, sensations, or brain activity. Her parents, however, were very much against removing her feeding tube. Eventually, the case made its way to the courts, both in the state of Florida and at the federal level. By 2005, the courts found in favor of Schiavo’s husband, and the feeding tube was removed on March 18, 2005. Schiavo died 13 days later.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Why did Schiavo’s eyes sometimes move, and why did she groan? Although the parts of her brain that control thought, voluntary movement, and feeling were completely damaged, her brainstem was still intact. Her medulla and pons maintained her breathing and caused involuntary movements of her eyes and the occasional groans. Over the 15-year period that she was on a feeding tube, Schiavo’s medical costs may have topped $7 million (Arnst, 2003).
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		These questions were brought to popular consciousness decades ago in the case of Terri Schiavo, and they have persisted. In 2013, a 13-year-old girl who suffered complications after tonsil surgery was declared brain dead. There was a battle between her family, who wanted her to remain on life support, and the hospital’s policies regarding persons declared brain dead. In another complicated 2013–14 case in Texas, a pregnant EMT professional declared brain dead was kept alive for weeks, despite her spouse’s directives, which were based on her wishes should this situation arise. In this case, state laws designed to protect an unborn fetus came into consideration until doctors determined the fetus unviable.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Decisions surrounding the medical response to patients declared brain dead are complex. What do you think about these issues?
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

5.4.3 Sound Localization

Question	Answer
hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory	cerebellum
division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum	hindbrain
hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate	medulla
division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain; contains the reticular formation	midbrain
hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep	pons
midbrain structure important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity	reticular formation
midbrain structure where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement	substantia nigra
midbrain structure where dopamine is produced: associated with mood, reward, and addiction	ventral tegmental area (VTA)