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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	There are several different types of <OpenstaxTerm>neurotransmitters</OpenstaxTerm> released by different neurons, and we can speak in broad terms about the kinds of functions associated with different neurotransmitters (<a href="#fs-id1346979">Table 3.1</a>). Much of what psychologists know about the functions of neurotransmitters comes from research on the effects of drugs in psychological disorders. Psychologists who take a <OpenstaxTerm>biological perspective</OpenstaxTerm> and focus on the physiological causes of behavior assert that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems. In this perspective, psychotropic medications can help improve the symptoms associated with these disorders. <OpenstaxTerm>Psychotropic medications</OpenstaxTerm> are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="fs-id1346979">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Neurotransmitter
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Involved in
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Potential Effect on Behavior
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Acetylcholine
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Muscle action, memory
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Increased arousal, enhanced cognition
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Beta-endorphin
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Pain, pleasure
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Decreased anxiety, decreased tension
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Dopamine
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mood, sleep, learning
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Increased pleasure, suppressed appetite
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Brain function, sleep
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Decreased anxiety, decreased tension
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Glutamate
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Memory, learning
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Increased learning, enhanced memory
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Norepinephrine
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Heart, intestines, alertness 
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Increased arousal, suppressed appetite
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Serotonin
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mood, sleep
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Modulated mood, suppressed appetite
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	<strong>Table 3.1</strong> Major Neurotransmitters and How They Affect Behavior
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Psychoactive drugs can act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system. <OpenstaxTerm>Agonists</OpenstaxTerm> are chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site. An <OpenstaxTerm>antagonist</OpenstaxTerm>, on the other hand, blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor. Agonists and antagonists represent drugs that are prescribed to correct the specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person’s condition. For example, Parkinson's disease, a progressive nervous system disorder, is associated with low levels of dopamine. Therefore, a common treatment strategy for Parkinson's disease involves using dopamine agonists, which mimic the effects of dopamine by binding to dopamine receptors.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Certain symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with overactive dopamine neurotransmission. The antipsychotics used to treat these symptoms are antagonists for dopamine—they block dopamine’s effects by binding its receptors without activating them. Thus, they prevent dopamine released by one neuron from signaling information to adjacent neurons.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In contrast to agonists and antagonists, which both operate by binding to receptor sites, reuptake inhibitors prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back to the neuron. This allows neurotransmitters to remain active in the synaptic cleft for longer durations, increasing their effectiveness. Depression, which has been consistently linked with reduced serotonin levels, is commonly treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). By preventing reuptake, SSRIs strengthen the effect of serotonin, giving it more time to interact with serotonin receptors on dendrites. Common SSRIs on the market today include Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft. The drug LSD is structurally very similar to serotonin, and it affects the same neurons and receptors as serotonin. Psychotropic drugs are not instant solutions for people suffering from psychological disorders. Often, an individual must take a drug for several weeks before seeing improvement, and many psychoactive drugs have significant negative side effects. Furthermore, individuals vary dramatically in how they respond to the drugs. To improve chances for success, it is not uncommon for people receiving pharmacotherapy to undergo psychological and/or behavioral therapies as well. Some research suggests that combining drug therapy with other forms of therapy tends to be more effective than any one treatment alone (for one such example, see March et al., 2007).
</OpenstaxParagraph>

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

5.4.3 Sound Localization

Question	Answer
drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter	antagonist
view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems	biological perspective