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Psychology

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	Statistically, ethnic minorities tend to utilize mental health services less frequently than White, middle-class Americans (Alegría et al., 2008; Richman, Kohn-Wood, &amp; Williams, 2007). Why is this so? Perhaps the reason has to do with access and availability of mental health services. Ethnic minorities and individuals of low socioeconomic status (SES) report that barriers to services include lack of insurance, transportation, and time (Thomas &amp; Snowden, 2002). However, researchers have found that even when income levels and insurance variables are taken into account, ethnic minorities are far less likely to seek out and utilize mental health services. And when access to mental health services is comparable across ethnic and racial groups, differences in service utilization remain (Richman et al., 2007).
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	In a study involving thousands of women, it was found that the prevalence rate of anorexia was similar across different races, but that bulimia nervosa was more prevalent among Hispanic and African American women when compared with non-Hispanic White people (Marques et al., 2011). Although they have similar or higher rates of eating disorders, Hispanic and African American women with these disorders tend to seek and engage in treatment far less than White women. These findings suggest ethnic disparities in access to care, as well as clinical and referral practices that may prevent Hispanic and African American women from receiving care, which could include lack of bilingual treatment, stigma, fear of not being understood, family privacy, and lack of education about eating disorders.
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	Perceptions and attitudes toward mental health services may also contribute to this imbalance. A recent study at King’s College, London, found many complex reasons why people do not seek treatment: self-sufficiency and not seeing the need for help, not seeing therapy as effective, concerns about confidentiality, and the many effects of stigma and shame (Clement et al., 2014). And in another study, African Americans exhibiting depression were less willing to seek treatment due to fear of possible psychiatric hospitalization as well as fear of the treatment itself (Sussman, Robins, &amp; Earls, 1987). Instead of mental health treatment, many African Americans prefer to be self-reliant or use spiritual practices (Snowden, 2001; Belgrave &amp; Allison, 2010). For example, it has been found that the Black church plays a significant role as an alternative to mental health services by providing prevention and treatment-type programs designed to enhance the psychological and physical well-being of its members (Blank, Mahmood, Fox, &amp; Guterbock, 2002).
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	Additionally, people belonging to ethnic groups that already report concerns about prejudice and discrimination are less likely to seek services for a mental illness because they view it as an additional stigma (Gary, 2005; Townes, Cunningham, &amp; Chavez-Korell, 2009; Scott, McCoy, Munson, Snowden, &amp; McMillen, 2011). For example, in one recent study of 462 older Korean Americans (over the age of 60) many participants reported suffering from depressive symptoms. However, 71% indicated they thought depression was a sign of personal weakness, and 14% reported that having a mentally ill family member would bring shame to the family (Jang, Chiriboga, &amp; Okazaki, 2009).
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	Language differences are a further barrier to treatment. In the previous study on Korean Americans’ attitudes toward mental health services, it was found that there were no Korean-speaking mental health professionals where the study was conducted (Orlando and Tampa, Florida) (Jang et al., 2009). Because of the growing number of people from ethnically diverse backgrounds, there is a need for therapists and psychologists to develop knowledge and skills to become culturally competent (Ahmed, Wilson, Henriksen, &amp; Jones, 2011). Those providing therapy must approach the process from the context of the unique culture of each client (Sue &amp; Sue, 2007).
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	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Dig Deeper </OpenstaxNoteTitle> <OpenstaxH3> Supporting Mental Health Treatment </OpenstaxH3>
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		In the United States, about one in six children and one in five adults experiences a mental health disorder, but fewer than half of these people receive professional support for their disorder (Whitney &amp; Peterson, 2019). Access to qualified mental health professionals is not universal or equitable, but it has improved to the point that more people could receive help if they sought it. Why then, do so many people go without support, therapy, or treatment?
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		It seems that the public has a negative perception of people with mental health disorders. According to researchers from Indiana University, the University of Virginia, and Columbia University, interviews with over 1,300 U.S. adults show that they believe children with depression are prone to violence and that if a child receives treatment for a psychological disorder, then that child is more likely to be rejected by peers at school.
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		Bernice Pescosolido, author of the study, asserts that this is a misconception. And it is not limited to perceptions of mental health issues in children: adults living with mental health issues may face even more scrutiny when sharing their condition or seeking support. Stigmatization of psychological disorders is one of the main reasons why people do not get the help they need when they are having difficulties. Pescosolido and her colleagues caution that this stigma surrounding mental illness, based on misconceptions rather than facts, can be devastating to emotional and social well-being.
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		Fortunately, we are starting to see discussions related to the destigmatization of mental illness and an increase in public education and awareness. Dozens of leaders have contributed to the conversation, including athletes like Naomi Osaka, Simone Biles, Michael Phelps, Kevin Love, and Dak Prescott, as well as artists such as Adele, Bruce Springsteen, Ariana Grande, Big Sean, and Bebe Rexha. Mental health awareness is stronger within workplaces, educational settings, and communities overall. However, stigma remains, particularly regarding mental health issues that are frequently misunderstood.
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		The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) outlines key considerations regarding support, sensitivity, and compassion regarding mental health:
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			Talk and listen openly about mental health: if you are confident and comfortable sharing your own mental health story, you may help someone else. Likewise, if you are comfortable learning about someone's experience, they may appreciate a friendly and supportive ear.
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			Avoid assumptions, generalizations, or judgments: people experience mental health differently, even if they have the same symptoms or diagnosis as another person. Although you may have the best intentions, it is usually not helpful to act as if you know how they feel or know how they should handle their condition.
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			Be conscious of language: using appropriate language creates a more welcoming and comfortable environment and reduces bias. Avoid language that stigmatizes, blames, or discourages people based on their or their family member's mental health.
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			Encourage equality regarding mental and physical illness, so that people recognize the necessity of addressing and treating both.
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			Encourage people to get help if they need it: first steps can include speaking to a doctor or counselor, or attending a support group meeting.
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		Managing mental health and addressing mental illness can be extremely challenging and painful, and may sometimes seem futile and confusing. As we mention above, a significant number of people have experienced mental health problems, and it is in all of our interests to improve wellbeing. With greater awareness and understanding, we will increase their capacity for better health and recovery, creating more productive and supportive communities, families, and relationships.
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		Join the effort by encouraging and supporting those around you to seek help if they need it. To learn more, visit the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) website (http://www.nami.org/).
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16.5.1 Barriers to Treatment

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
institution created for the specific purpose of housing people with psychological disorders	asylum
form of psychotherapy that aims to change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors	cognitive-behavioral therapy
individual who has two or more diagnoses, which often includes a substance abuse diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis, such as depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia	comorbid disorder
non-directive form of humanistic psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers that emphasizes unconditional positive regard and self-acceptance	Rogerian (client-centered therapy)