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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the previous section we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads us to change our attitudes, behaviors, and/or cognitions to make them consonant. <OpenstaxTerm>Persuasion</OpenstaxTerm> is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (<a href="#CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion">Figure 12.14</a>)? What communications do you receive that attempt to persuade you to change your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors?
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<OpenstaxFigure id="CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/b7f0e2f81afdb0dae70bb08d4bacc1fe22b6da70" alt="A photograph shows the back of a car that is covered in numerous bumper stickers." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="488" height="366" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="488">
	Figure 12.14 We encounter attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not limited to formal advertising; we are confronted with it throughout our everyday world. (credit: Robert Couse-Baker)
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence, providing us with a plethora of information on how humans can be persuaded by others.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Yale Attitude Change Approach</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World War, Carl <OpenstaxTerm>Hovland</OpenstaxTerm> extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called the <OpenstaxTerm>Yale attitude change approach</OpenstaxTerm>, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, &amp; Kelley, 1953).
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland &amp; Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness of the speaker (Eagly &amp; Chaiken, 1975; Petty, Wegener, &amp; Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic, and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less credible speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than less attractive speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale &amp; Albarracín, 2004).
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Features of the message itself that affect persuasion include subtlety (the quality of being important, but not obvious) (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986; Walster &amp; Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than one side) (Crowley &amp; Hoyer, 1994; Igou &amp; Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine &amp; Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt &amp; Wegener, 1994; Miller &amp; Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back. However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend to be more persuasive (Miller &amp; Campbell, 1959).
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Features of the audience that affect persuasion are attention (Albarracín &amp; Wyer, 2001; Festinger &amp; Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes &amp; Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick &amp; Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes &amp; Wood, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18–25 are more persuadable than older adults.
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<OpenstaxH3>Elaboration Likelihood Model</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986). The <OpenstaxTerm>elaboration likelihood model</OpenstaxTerm> considers the variables of the attitude change approach—that is, features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral (<a href="#CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2">Figure 12.15</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/6322bc876ce2590793007981eb3b8e4b66dbb75a" alt="A diagram shows two routes of persuasion. A box on the left is labeled “persuasive message” and arrows from the box separate into two routes: the central and peripheral routes, each with boxes describing the characteristics of the audience, processing, and persuasion. The audience is “motivated, analytical” in the central route, and “not motivated, not analytical” in the peripheral route. Processing in the central route is “high effort; evaluate message” and in the peripheral route is “low effort; persuaded by cues outside of message.” Persuasion in the central route is “lasting change in attitude” and in the peripheral route is “temporary change in attitude.”" mediaType="image/jpeg" width="975" height="342" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="975">
	Figure 12.15 Persuasion can take one of two paths, and the durability of the end result depends on the path.
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	The <OpenstaxTerm>central route</OpenstaxTerm> is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness. For example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the car’s safety features and fuel economy. This is a direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude change.
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	The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in processing of the information. From an advertiser’s perspective, what products would be best sold using the central route to persuasion? What audience would most likely be influenced to buy the product? One example is buying a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer’s quality and features such as processing speed and memory capacity.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>peripheral route</OpenstaxTerm> is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message (Petty &amp; Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product’s quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route to attitude change does not require much effort or information processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude or behavior change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a product with a clear brand name or brand identity in a TV show or movie to promote the product (Gupta &amp; Lord, 1998). For example, one season of the reality series <OpenstaxEm>American Idol</OpenstaxEm> prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to persuasion? Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.
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<OpenstaxH3>Foot-in-the-door Technique</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in selling products and changing people’s attitude, ideas, and behaviors. One effective strategy is the foot-in-the-door technique (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, &amp; Saari, 1974). Using the <OpenstaxTerm>foot-in-the-door technique</OpenstaxTerm>, the persuader gets a person to agree to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item. The foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to post a small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more likely to agree to put a large sign in their yard than people who declined the first request (<a href="#CNX_Psych_12_03_signs">Figure 12.16</a>). Research on this technique also illustrates the principle of consistency (Cialdini, 2001): Our past behavior often directs our future behavior, and we have a desire to maintain consistency once we have committed to a behavior.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="CNX_Psych_12_03_signs" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/65c62cdd88e10b7a06653592b2092ba918c83694" alt="Photograph A shows a campaign button. Photograph B shows a yard filled with numerous signs." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="650" height="285" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="650">
	Figure 12.16 With the foot-in-the-door technique, getting someone to agree to a small request such as (a) wearing a campaign button can make them more likely to agree to a larger request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your yard. (credit a: modification of work by Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of work by "shutterblog"/Flickr)
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents for a small permission (for example, extending curfew by a half hour) and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller request increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce to the later, larger request.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	How would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you an expensive product? For example, say that you are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best data plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger purchase—the three-year extended warranty. After agreeing to the smaller request, you are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You may have encountered this if you have bought a car. When salespeople realize that a buyer intends to purchase a certain model, they might try to get the customer to pay for many or most available options on the car. Another example of the foot-in-the-door technique would be applied to an individual in the market for a used car who decides to buy a fully loaded new car. Why? Because the salesperson convinced the buyer that they need a car that has all of the safety features that were not available in the used car.
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12.3.2 Persuasion

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item	foot-in-the-door technique
process of changing our attitude toward something based on some form of communication	persuasion