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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another method for assessment of personality is <OpenstaxTerm>projective testing</OpenstaxTerm>. This kind of test relies on one of the defense mechanisms proposed by Freud—projection—as a way to assess unconscious processes. During this type of testing, a series of ambiguous cards is shown to the person being tested, who then is encouraged to project their feelings, impulses, and desires onto the cards—by telling a story, interpreting an image, or completing a sentence. Many projective tests have undergone standardization procedures (for example, Exner, 2002) and can be used to assess whether someone has unusual thoughts or a high level of anxiety, or is likely to become volatile. Some examples of projective tests are the Rorschach Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks test, the TEMAS (Tell-Me-A-Story), and the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB). Projective tests are less subject to intentional distortion; it is hard to fake “good" because it is not obvious what a "good” answer is. Projective tests are more time consuming for the evaluator than self-report inventories. If an evaluator scores the Rorschach using the Exner scoring system, the test is considered a valid and reliable measure. However, the validity of the other projective tests is questionable, and the results are often not usable for court cases (Goldstein, n.d.).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>Rorschach Inkblot Test</OpenstaxTerm> was developed in 1921 by a Swiss psychologist named Hermann Rorschach (pronounced “ROAR-shock”). It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card, the psychologist asks the client, “What might this be?” What the test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and struggles (Piotrowski, 1987; Weiner, 2003). The Rorschach has been standardized using the Exner system and is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A second projective test is the <OpenstaxTerm>Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)</OpenstaxTerm>, created in the 1930s by Henry Murray, an American psychologist, and a psychoanalyst named Christiana Morgan. A person taking the TAT is shown 8–12 ambiguous pictures and is asked to tell a story about each picture (<a href="#Figure_11_09_TAT">Figure 11.18</a>). The stories give insight into their social world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. The storytelling format helps to lower a person’s resistance divulging unconscious personal details (Cramer, 2004). The TAT has been used in clinical settings to evaluate psychological difficulties. Standardization of test administration is virtually nonexistent among clinicians, and the test tends to be modest to low on validity and reliability (Aronow, Weiss, &amp; Rezinkoff, 2001; Lilienfeld, Wood, &amp; Garb, 2000). Despite these shortcomings, the TAT has been one of the most widely used projective tests.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_11_09_TAT" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/3f2858e865222e180bbdfa47e37fbaa5155c7344" alt="Illustration of two people sitting on a bench. One winds thread around her hands; the other holds the loose end and the ball of thread." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="487" height="354" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	<strong>Figure 11.18</strong> This image is from the Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT).
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A third projective test is the <OpenstaxTerm>Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)</OpenstaxTerm> developed by Julian Rotter in 1950 (recall his theory of locus of control, covered earlier in this chapter). There are three forms of this test for use with different age groups: the school form, the college form, and the adult form. The tests include 40 incomplete sentences that people are asked to complete as quickly as possible (<a href="#Figure_11_09_ISB">Figure 11.19</a>). The average time for completing the test is approximately 20 minutes, as responses are only 1–2 words in length. This test is similar to a word association test, and like other types of projective tests, it is presumed that responses will reveal desires, fears, and struggles. The RISB is used in screening college students for adjustment problems and in career counseling (Holaday, Smith, &amp; Sherry, 2010; Rotter &amp; Rafferty 1950).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_11_09_ISB" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/de04927f869829d1d1433ceaf289ed87e69ff6eb" alt="Five incomplete sentences are stacked vertically with empty space to the right of each sentence in which to complete it. The sentence starters are : “1. I feel,” “2. I regret,” “3. At home,” “4. My mother,” and “5. My greatest worry.”" mediaType="image/jpeg" width="649" height="273" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="649">
	<strong>Figure 11.19</strong> These incomplete sentences resemble the types of questions on the RISB. How would you complete these sentences?
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	For many decades, these traditional projective tests have been used in cross-cultural personality assessments. However, it was found that test bias limited their usefulness (Hoy-Watkins &amp; Jenkins-Moore, 2008). It is difficult to assess the personalities and lifestyles of members of widely divergent ethnic/cultural groups using personality instruments based on data from a single culture or race (Hoy-Watkins &amp; Jenkins-Moore, 2008). For example, when the TAT was used with African-American test takers, the result was often shorter story length and low levels of cultural identification (Duzant, 2005). Therefore, it was vital to develop other personality assessments that explored factors such as race, language, and level of acculturation (Hoy-Watkins &amp; Jenkins-Moore, 2008). To address this need, Robert Williams developed the first culturally specific projective test designed to reflect the everyday life experiences of African Americans (Hoy-Watkins &amp; Jenkins-Moore, 2008). The updated version of the instrument is the <OpenstaxTerm>Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)</OpenstaxTerm> (Williams, 1972). The C-TCB contains 20 color images that show scenes of African-American lifestyles. When the C-TCB was compared with the TAT for African Americans, it was found that use of the C-TCB led to increased story length, higher degrees of positive feelings, and stronger identification with the C-TCB (Hoy, 1997; Hoy-Watkins &amp; Jenkins-Moore, 2008).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test</OpenstaxTerm> is another tool designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths. TEMAS—standing for “Tell Me a Story” but also a play on the Spanish word <OpenstaxEm>temas </OpenstaxEm>(themes)—uses images and storytelling cues that relate to minority culture (Constantino, 1982).
</OpenstaxParagraph>

11.9.2 Projective Tests

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
pattern that exists in our collective unconscious across cultures and societies	archetype
projective test designed to be culturally relevant to African Americans, using images that relate to African-American culture	Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)
unconscious protective behaviors designed to reduce ego anxiety	defense mechanism
personality assessment in which a person responds to ambiguous stimuli, revealing hidden feelings, impulses, and desires	Projective test
stages of child development in which a child’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on specific areas of the body called erogenous zones	psychosexual stages of development
ego defense mechanism in which anxiety-related thoughts and memories are kept in the unconscious	repression
projective test that employs a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are presented to a client by a psychologist in an effort to reveal the person’s unconscious desires, fears, and struggles	Rorschach Inkblot Test
projective test that is similar to a word association test in which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles	Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB)
projective test designed to be culturally relevant to minority groups, especially Hispanic youths, using images and storytelling that relate to minority culture	TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test
projective test in which people are presented with ambiguous images, and they then make up stories to go with the images in an effort to uncover their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles	Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)