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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik <OpenstaxTerm>Erikson</OpenstaxTerm> met Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that same year. As you learned when you studied lifespan development, Erikson later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan—a departure from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on sex. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which represents a conflict or developmental task (<a href="#Table_11_03_01">Table 11.2</a>). The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="Table_11_03_01">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Stage
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Age (years)
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Developmental Task
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Description
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				1
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				0–1
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Trust vs. mistrust
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met 
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				2
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				1–3
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Sense of independence in many tasks develops
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				3
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				3–6
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Initiative vs. guilt
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				4
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				7–11
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Industry vs. inferiority
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				5
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				12–18
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Identity vs. confusion
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Experiment with and develop identity and roles
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				6
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				19–29
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Intimacy vs. isolation
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Establish intimacy and relationships with others 
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				7
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				30–64
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Generativity vs. stagnation
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Contribute to society and be part of a family
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				8
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				65–
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Integrity vs. despair
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	<strong>Table 11.2</strong> Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
</OpenstaxTableTitle>

11.3.2 Erik Erikson

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception