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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood: Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In each <OpenstaxTerm>psychosexual stage of development</OpenstaxTerm>, the child’s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (<a href="#fs-idm172201728">Table 11.1</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Freud’s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To understand the origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with the political, social, and cultural influences of Freud’s day in Vienna at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a climate of sexual repression, combined with limited understanding and education surrounding human sexuality, heavily influenced Freud’s perspective. Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional states (neuroses) stemmed from suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges. For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations of patients’ experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxTable id="fs-idm172201728">
	<OpenstaxThead>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Stage
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Age (years)
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Erogenous Zone
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Major Conflict
			</OpenstaxTh> 
			<OpenstaxTh>
				Adult Fixation Example
			</OpenstaxTh> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxThead>
	<OpenstaxTbody>
		 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Oral
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				0–1
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Mouth
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Weaning off breast or bottle
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Smoking, overeating
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Anal
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				1–3
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Anus
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Toilet training
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Neatness, messiness
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Phallic
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				3–6
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Genitals
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Oedipus/Electra complex
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Vanity, overambition
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Latency
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				6–12
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				None
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				None
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				None 
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
		<OpenstaxTr>
			 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Genital
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				12+
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				Genitals
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				None
			</OpenstaxTd> 
			<OpenstaxTd>
				None
			</OpenstaxTd> 
		</OpenstaxTr> 
	</OpenstaxTbody>
</OpenstaxTable>
<OpenstaxTableTitle>
	<strong>Table 11.1</strong> Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
</OpenstaxTableTitle>
<OpenstaxH3>Oral Stage</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the <OpenstaxTerm>oral stage</OpenstaxTerm> (birth to 1 year), pleasure is focused on the mouth. Eating and the pleasure derived from sucking (nipples, pacifiers, and thumbs) play a large part in a baby’s first year of life. At around 1 year of age, babies are weaned from the bottle or breast, and this process can create conflict if not handled properly by caregivers. According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks, overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her psychosexual development; she may have been weaned too early or too late, resulting in these fixation tendencies, all of which seek to ease anxiety.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Anal Stage</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	After passing through the oral stage, children enter what Freud termed the <OpenstaxTerm>anal stage</OpenstaxTerm> (1–3 years). In this stage, children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements, so it makes sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training. During this stage of development, children work to master control of themselves. Freud suggested that success at the anal stage depended on how parents handled toilet training. Parents who offer praise and rewards encourage positive results and can help children feel competent. Parents who are harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become so fearful of soiling that they over-control and become fixated at the anal stage, leading to the development of an anal-retentive personality. The anal-retentive personality is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist. If parents are too lenient in toilet training, the child may fail to develop sufficient self-control, become fixated at this stage, and develop an anal-expulsive personality. The anal-expulsive personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Phallic Stage</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Freud’s third stage of psychosexual development is the <OpenstaxTerm>phallic stage</OpenstaxTerm> (3–6 years), corresponding to the age when children become aware of their bodies and recognize the differences between boys and girls. The erogenous zone in this stage is the genitals. Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the opposite-sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent. For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy's desire for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival for the mother’s attention. The Oedipus complex is named for the Greek myth of Oedipus, who unwittingly kills his biological father and marries his biological mother. According to Freud, the boy is afraid his father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences <OpenstaxEm>castration anxiety</OpenstaxEm>. The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the mother. Failure to resolve the Oedipus complex may result in fixation and development of a personality that might be described as vain and overly ambitious.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Freud described <OpenstaxEm>penis envy</OpenstaxEm>, which he alleged girls experience because they do not have a penis. Girls also experience the Electra complex. The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was actually proposed by Freud’s protégé, Carl Jung (Jung &amp; Kerenyi, 1963). A girl desires the attention of her father and wishes to take her mother’s place. While Freud initially embraced the Electra complex as a parallel to the Oedipus complex, he later rejected it, yet it remains as a cornerstone of Freudian theory, thanks in part to academics in the field (Freud, 1931/1968; Scott, 2005).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Latency Period</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Following the phallic stage of psychosexual development is a period known as the <OpenstaxTerm>latency period</OpenstaxTerm> (6 years to puberty). This period is not considered a stage, because sexual feelings are dormant as children focus on other pursuits, such as school, friendships, hobbies, and sports. Children generally engage in activities with peers of the same sex, which serves to consolidate a child’s gender-role identity.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Genital Stage</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The final stage is the <OpenstaxTerm>genital stage</OpenstaxTerm> (from puberty on). In this stage, there is a sexual reawakening as the incestuous urges resurface. The young person redirects these urges to other, more socially acceptable partners (who often resemble the other-sex parent). People in this stage have mature sexual interests, which for Freud meant a strong desire for the opposite sex. Individuals who successfully completed the previous stages, reaching the genital stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research, and several contemporary researchers rejected his premises, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. It was Freud who pointed out that a large part of our mental life is influenced by the experiences of early childhood and takes place outside of our conscious awareness; his theories paved the way for others.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While Freud's focus on biological drives led him to emphasize the impact of sociocultural factors on personality development, his followers quickly realized that biology alone could not account for the diversity they encountered as the practice of psychoanalysis spread during the time of the Nazi Holocaust. The antisemitism which was prevalent during this period of time may have led mainstream psychoanalysts to focus primarily on the universality of the psychological structures of the mind.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

11.2.3 Stages of Psychosexual Development

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception

Question	Answer
psychosexual stage in which children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements	anal stage
psychosexual stage in which the focus is on mature sexual interests	genital stage
psychosexual stage in which sexual feelings are dormant	latency period
psychosexual stage in which an infant’s pleasure is focused on the mouth	oral stage
psychosexual stage in which the focus is on the genitals	phallic stage