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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	William <OpenstaxTerm>James</OpenstaxTerm> (1842–1910) was an important contributor to early research into motivation, and he is often referred to as the father of psychology in the United States. James theorized that behavior was driven by a number of instincts, which aid survival (<a href="#Figure_10_01_WilliamJ">Figure 10.4</a>). From a biological perspective, an <OpenstaxTerm>instinct</OpenstaxTerm> is a species-specific pattern of behavior that is not learned. There was, however, considerable controversy among James and his contemporaries over the exact definition of instinct. James proposed several dozen special human instincts, but many of his contemporaries had their own lists that differed. A mother’s protection of her baby, the urge to lick sugar, and hunting prey were among the human behaviors proposed as true instincts during James’s era. This view—that human behavior is driven by instincts—received a fair amount of criticism because of the undeniable role of learning in shaping all sorts of human behavior. In fact, as early as the 1900s, some instinctive behaviors were experimentally demonstrated to result from associative learning (recall when you learned about Watson’s conditioning of fear response in “Little Albert”) (Faris, 1921).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_WilliamJ" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/fec6aaf344d0efd6eb21990dfa04c023cdd27779" alt="Photograph A shows William James. Photograph B shows a person breastfeeding a baby." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="650" height="386" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="650">
	Figure 10.4 (a) William James proposed the instinct theory of motivation, asserting that behavior is driven by instincts. (b) In humans, instincts may include behaviors such as an infant’s rooting for a nipple and sucking. (credit b: modification of work by "Mothering Touch"/Flickr)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Another early theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior. You may recall from your earlier reading that homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In a body system, a control center (which is often part of the brain) receives input from receptors (which are often complexes of neurons). The control center directs effectors (which may be other neurons) to correct any imbalance detected by the control center.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	According to the <OpenstaxTerm>drive theory</OpenstaxTerm> of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. For example, if it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a physiological need and a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out and consume food (<a href="#Figure_10_01_Eating">Figure 10.5</a>). Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will return to normal. Interestingly, drive theory also emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioral response in which we engage. A <OpenstaxTerm>habit</OpenstaxTerm> is a pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage. Once we have engaged in a behavior that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior whenever faced with that drive in the future (Graham &amp; Weiner, 1996).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_Eating" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/7bba3d5a711d30d4991bc7f44729b08080cb6caf" alt="Photograph “left” shows a child eating watermelon. Photograph “center” shows a young person eating sushi. Photograph “right” shows an elderly person eating food." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="732" height="200" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="732">
	Figure 10.5 Hunger and subsequent eating are the result of complex physiological processes that maintain homeostasis. (credit "left": modification of work by "Gracie and Viv"/Flickr; credit "center": modification of work by Steven Depolo; credit "right": modification of work by Monica Renata)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Extensions of drive theory take into account levels of arousal as potential motivators. As you recall from your study of learning, these theories assert that there is an optimal level of arousal that we all try to maintain (<a href="#Figure_10_01_Arousal">Figure 10.6</a>). If we are underaroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of stimulation. On the other hand, if we are overaroused, we will engage in behaviors to reduce our arousal (Berlyne, 1960). Most students have experienced this need to maintain optimal levels of arousal over the course of their academic career. Think about how much stress students experience toward the end of spring semester. They feel overwhelmed with seemingly endless exams, papers, and major assignments that must be completed on time. They probably yearn for the rest and relaxation that awaits them over the extended summer break. However, once they finish the semester, it doesn’t take too long before they begin to feel bored. Generally, by the time the next semester is beginning in the fall, many students are quite happy to return to school. This is an example of how arousal theory works.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_Arousal" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/acacb6d14f035f9469e544ae36926447a94f2fa2" alt="A line graph has an x-axis labeled “arousal level” with an arrow indicating “low” to “high” and a y-axis labeled “performance quality” with an arrow indicating “low” to “high.” A curve charts optimal arousal. Where arousal level and performance quality are both “low,” the curve is low and labeled “boredom or apathy.” Where arousal level is “medium” and “performance quality is “medium,” the curve peaks and is labeled “optimal level.” Where the arousal level is “high” and the performance quality is “low,” the curve is low and is labeled “high anxiety.”" mediaType="image/jpeg" width="649" height="315" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="649">
	Figure 10.6 The concept of optimal arousal in relation to performance on a task is depicted here. Performance is maximized at the optimal level of arousal, and it tapers off during under- and overarousal.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	So what is the optimal level of arousal? What level leads to the best performance? Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer (Yerkes &amp; Dodson, 1908). Think of your arousal level regarding taking an exam for this class. If your level is very low, such as boredom and apathy, your performance will likely suffer. Similarly, a very high level, such as extreme anxiety, can be paralyzing and hinder performance. Consider the example of a softball team facing a tournament. They are favored to win their first game by a large margin, so they go into the game with a lower level of arousal and get beat by a less skilled team. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	But optimal arousal level is more complex than a simple answer that the middle level is always best. Researchers Robert Yerkes (pronounced “Yerk-EES”) and John Dodson discovered that the optimal arousal level depends on the complexity and difficulty of the task to be performed (<a href="#Figure_10_01_YerkesDod">Figure 10.7</a>). This relationship is known as the <OpenstaxTerm>Yerkes-Dodson law</OpenstaxTerm>, which holds that a simple task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower. 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_YerkesDod" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/c989e25d95b15ea8699b7281442cadcbb307461d" alt="A line graph has an x-axis labeled “arousal level” with an arrow indicating “low” to “high” and a y-axis labeled “performance quality” with an arrow indicating “low” to “high.” Two curves charts optimal arousal, one for difficult tasks and the other for easy tasks. The optimal level for easy tasks is reached with slightly higher arousal levels than for difficult tasks." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="649" height="339" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="649">
	Figure 10.7 Task performance is best when arousal levels are in a middle range, with difficult tasks best performed under lower levels of arousal and simple tasks best performed under higher levels of arousal.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxH3>Self-efficacy and Social Motives</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Self-efficacy</OpenstaxTerm> is an individual’s belief in their own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous successful completion of the exact task or a similar task. Albert <OpenstaxTerm>Bandura</OpenstaxTerm> (1994) theorized that an individual’s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in motivating behavior. Bandura argues that motivation derives from expectations that we have about the consequences of our behaviors, and ultimately, it is the appreciation of our capacity to engage in a given behavior that will determine what we do and the future goals that we set for ourselves. For example, if you have a sincere belief in your ability to achieve at the highest level, you are more likely to take on challenging tasks and to not let setbacks dissuade you from seeing the task through to the end.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	A number of theorists have focused their research on understanding social motives (McAdams &amp; Constantian, 1983; McClelland &amp; Liberman, 1949; Murray et al., 1938). Among the motives they describe are needs for achievement, affiliation, and intimacy. It is the need for achievement that drives accomplishment and performance. The need for affiliation encourages positive interactions with others, and the need for intimacy causes us to seek deep, meaningful relationships. Henry Murray et al. (1938) categorized these needs into domains. For example, the need for achievement and recognition falls under the domain of ambition. Dominance and aggression were recognized as needs under the domain of human power, and play was a recognized need in the domain of interpersonal affection.
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<OpenstaxH3>Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While the theories of motivation described earlier relate to basic biological drives, individual characteristics, or social contexts, Abraham <OpenstaxTerm>Maslow</OpenstaxTerm> (1943) proposed a <OpenstaxTerm>hierarchy of needs</OpenstaxTerm> that spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. These needs are often depicted as a pyramid (<a href="#Figure_10_01_Maslow">Figure 10.8</a>).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_Maslow" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/1fb6a72e221590cecee87da511ac6f35005f7dec" alt="A triangle is divided vertically into five sections with corresponding labels inside and outside of the triangle for each section. From top to bottom, the triangle's sections are labeled: “self-actualization” corresponds to “Inner fulfillment” “esteem” corresponds to “Self-worth, accomplishment, confidence”; “social” corresponds to “Family, friendship, intimacy, belonging”’ “security” corresponds to “Safety, employment, assets”; ““physiological” corresponds to “Food, water, shelter, warmth.”" mediaType="image/jpeg" width="487" height="556" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	Figure 10.8 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is illustrated here. In some versions of the pyramid, cognitive and aesthetic needs are also included between esteem and self-actualization. Others include another tier at the top of the pyramid for self-transcendence.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are necessary for survival. These are followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence. The top tier of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met. To Maslow and humanistic theorists, self-actualization reflects the humanistic emphasis on positive aspects of human nature. Maslow suggested that this is an ongoing, life-long process and that only a small percentage of people actually achieve a self-actualized state (Francis &amp; Kritsonis, 2006; Maslow, 1943). 
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	According to Maslow (1943), one must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid. So, for example, if someone is struggling to find enough food to meet their nutritional requirements, it is quite unlikely that they would spend an inordinate amount of time thinking about whether others viewed them as a good person or not. Instead, all of their energies would be geared toward finding something to eat. However, it should be pointed out that Maslow’s theory has been criticized for its subjective nature and its inability to account for phenomena that occur in the real world (Leonard, 1982). Other research has more recently addressed that late in life, Maslow proposed a self-transcendence level above self-actualization—to represent striving for meaning and purpose beyond the concerns of oneself (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). For example, people sometimes make self-sacrifices in order to make a political statement or in an attempt to improve the conditions of others. Mohandas K. Gandhi, a world-renowned advocate for independence through nonviolent protest, on several occasions went on hunger strikes to protest a particular situation. People may starve themselves or otherwise put themselves in danger displaying higher-level motives beyond their own needs.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Link to Learning </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		Check out this <a href="http://openstax.org/l/hierneeds">interactive exercise about Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a> to learn more.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>

Question	Answer
deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis	drive theory
pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage	habit
spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization	hierarchy of needs
species-specific pattern of behavior that is unlearned	instinct
individual’s belief in their own capabilities or capacities to complete a task	self-efficacy
simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower	Yerkes-Dodson law