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Psychology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	By the end of this section, you will be able to:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Understand that instincts, drive reduction, self-efficacy, and social motives have all been proposed as theories of motivation
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		Explain the basic concepts associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Why do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors? <OpenstaxTerm>Motivation</OpenstaxTerm> describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. In addition to biological motives, motivations can be <OpenstaxTerm>intrinsic</OpenstaxTerm> (arising from internal factors) or <OpenstaxTerm>extrinsic</OpenstaxTerm> (arising from external factors) (<a href="#Figure_10_01_Motivation">Figure 10.2</a>). Intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_Motivation" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/6fdc6d1ac370c83eafe44f8444472c0a43418e2c" alt="An illustration shows a person’s upper torso. Inside the person's head are the words “intrinsic motivation (from within)” and three bullet points: “autonomy,” “mastery,” “purpose.” Outside the person's outline are the words “extrinsic motivation (from outside)” and three bullet points: “compensation,” “punishment,” and “reward.”" mediaType="image/jpeg" width="487" height="260" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="487">
	<strong>Figure 10.2</strong> Intrinsic motivation comes from within the individual, while extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual.
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Think about why you are pursuing an education. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is an old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your occupation, work doesn’t seem like . . . well, work. Some research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel &amp; Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, &amp; Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at her grocery store job, she whips up pastries in the evenings because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it (<a href="#Figure_10_01_Bakery">Figure 10.3</a>). What Odessa has experienced is called the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="Figure_10_01_Bakery" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/0c3f05882e5d43818d5be7a572dbe993ca57a8a2" alt="A photograph shows several chefs preparing food together in a kitchen." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="325" height="218" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="325">
	<strong>Figure 10.3</strong> Research suggests that when something we love to do, like icing cakes, becomes our job, our intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to do it may change. (credit: Agustín Ruiz)
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron &amp; Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.
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	These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In addition, culture may influence motivation. For example, in collectivistic cultures, it is common to do things for your family members because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group, rather than what is best for any one individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, &amp; Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior becomes more likely. (You will learn more about collectivistic and individualistic cultures when you learn about social psychology.)
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In educational settings, students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment. Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging, yet doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning activities can enhance intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec &amp; Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-year law student with two courses this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on the spot with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on quizzes and exams, and the instructor posts results of each test on the classroom door. In contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates classroom discussions and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade is not exam-based, but centers on a student-designed research project on a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests that Hakim will be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the class setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and where students have more influence over their learning activities. 
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10.1 Motivation

1 Introduction to Psychology

1.1 What Is Psychology?

1.1.1 Why Study Psychology?

1.2 History of Psychology

1.2.1 Wundt and Structuralism

1.2.2 Functionalism

1.2.3 Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

1.2.4 Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler, and Gestalt Psychology

1.2.5 Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, and Behaviorism

1.2.6 Maslow, Rogers, and Humanism

1.2.7 The Cognitive Revolution

1.2.8 Multicultural And Cross-Cultural Psychology

1.2.9 Women in Psychology

1.3 Contemporary Psychology

1.3.1 Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology

1.3.2 Sensation and Perception

1.3.3 Cognitive Psychology

1.3.4 Developmental Psychology

1.3.5 Personality Psychology

1.3.6 Social Psychology

1.3.7 Industrial-Organizational Psychology

1.3.8 Health Psychology

1.3.9 Sport and Exercise Psychology

1.3.10 Clinical Psychology

1.3.11 Forensic Psychology

1.4 Careers in Psychology

1.4.1 Other Careers in Academic Settings

1.4.2 Career Options Outside of Academic Settings

2 Psychological Research

2.1 Why Is Research Important?

2.1.1 Use of Research Information

2.1.2 NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

2.1.3 The Process of Scientific Research

2.2 Approaches to Research

2.2.1 Clinical or Case Studies

2.2.2 Naturalistic Observation

2.2.3 Surveys

2.2.4 Archival Research

2.2.5 Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

2.3 Analyzing Findings

2.3.1 Correlational Research

2.3.2 Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data

2.3.3 Reliability and Validity

2.4 Ethics

2.4.1 Research Involving Human Participants

2.4.2 Research Involving Animal Subjects

3 Biopsychology

3.1 Human Genetics

3.1.1 Genetic Variation

3.1.2 Gene-Environment Interactions

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

3.2.1 Neuron Structure

3.2.2 Neuronal Communication

3.2.3 Neurotransmitters and Drugs

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

3.3.1 Peripheral Nervous System

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

3.4.1 The Spinal Cord

3.4.2 The Two Hemispheres

3.4.3 Forebrain Structures

3.4.4 Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

3.4.5 Brain Imaging

3.5 The Endocrine System

3.5.1 Major Glands

4 States of Consciousness

4.1 What Is Consciousness?

4.1.1 Biological Rhythms

4.1.2 Problems With Circadian Rhythms

4.2 Sleep and Why We Sleep

4.2.1 What is Sleep?

4.2.2 Why Do We Sleep?

4.3 Stages of Sleep

4.3.1 NREM Stages of Sleep

4.3.2 REM Sleep

4.4 Sleep Problems and Disorders

4.4.1 Insomnia

4.4.2 Parasomnias

4.4.3 Sleep Apnea

4.4.4 Narcolepsy

4.5 Substance Use and Abuse

4.5.1 Substance Use Disorders

4.5.2 Drug Categories

4.6 Other States of Consciousness

4.6.1 Hypnosis

4.6.2 Meditation

5 Sensation and Perception

5.1 Sensation versus Perception

5.1.1 Sensation

5.1.2 Perception

5.2 Waves and Wavelengths

5.2.1 Amplitude and Wavelength

5.2.2 Light Waves

5.2.3 Sound Waves

5.3 Vision

5.3.1 Anatomy of the Visual System

5.3.2 Color and Depth Perception

5.4 Hearing

5.4.1 Anatomy of the Auditory System

5.4.2 Pitch Perception