Post proelium duo testes testimonium apud iudicem proferunt.

Because post is a preposition that takes the accusative case when it means after.

• post = after
• proelium = battle
• proelium here is accusative singular

So post proelium literally means after the battle.

An English speaker may expect something like after battle without any visible case change, but Latin marks the noun’s role with its ending.

Because post takes the accusative, not the ablative.

• proelium = accusative singular
• proelio = ablative singular

So after post, you need proelium.

This is a very common thing to memorize in Latin: many prepositions require a specific case.

Latin numbers one, two, and three behave more like adjectives and must agree with the noun they describe in gender, number, and case.

Here the noun is testes:

• masculine
• plural
• nominative

So the correct form is duo.

The forms of two are:

• masculine: duo
• feminine: duae
• neuter: duo

So duo testes = two witnesses.

Testes is the nominative plural of testis, meaning witness.

Why nominative plural?

• It is the subject of the sentence.
• There are two witnesses, so it must be plural.

So:

• testis = witness
• testes = witnesses

They are related in meaning, but they are different kinds of words.

• testis = a witness, a person
• testimonium = testimony, evidence, or a statement, the thing being given

So in this sentence:

• duo testes = two witnesses
• testimonium = testimony

In other words, the people are giving the statement.

Because Latin often uses a singular noun where English might also use a singular collective idea, such as testimony.

So testimonium here means something like:

• testimony
• a piece of testimony
• evidence

Even though two witnesses are involved, they may be presenting one body of testimony or one statement.

So singular is perfectly natural.

Testimonium is accusative singular because it is the direct object of the verb proferunt.

The sentence is asking: what do the witnesses present?

Answer: testimonium.

So:

• subject: duo testes
• verb: proferunt
• direct object: testimonium

Apud iudicem means before the judge or in the presence of the judge.

• apud is a preposition
• it often means at, among, before, or in the presence of
• iudicem means judge in the accusative singular

In a legal context, apud iudicem is very naturally understood as before the judge.

Because apud takes the accusative case.

So even though English says before the judge, Latin expresses that with a preposition requiring accusative:

• apud iudicem

This does not make iudicem the direct object of the verb. It is simply the object of the preposition apud.

Proferunt is:

• 3rd person plural
• present tense
• active voice
• indicative mood

It comes from proferre, meaning to bring forth, to produce, or to present.

Because the subject is plural (duo testes), the verb is plural too:

• he/she presents = profert
• they present = proferunt

Not entirely. Proferre is a compound of ferre, which is an irregular verb meaning to bear, to carry, or to bring.

So pro-ferre literally has the sense of bring forward or bring forth.

That is why testimonium proferunt can mean:

• they present testimony
• they bring forward testimony
• they give evidence

This is a good phrase to learn as a unit.

Latin word order is much more flexible than English word order because Latin uses case endings to show grammatical function.

So even if the verb comes last, the meaning is still clear:

• duo testes = subject
• testimonium = object
• proferunt = verb

Putting the verb at the end is very common in Latin prose.

This sentence also has a nice flow:

• Post proelium = sets the time
• duo testes = introduces the subject
• testimonium = tells you what is being presented
• apud iudicem = tells you before whom
• proferunt = finishes with the action

Yes, often they could.

For example, Latin could rearrange these words in several ways without changing the basic meaning, because the endings show the grammar.

For instance, something like this would still be understandable:

• Duo testes post proelium apud iudicem testimonium proferunt.

The exact word order can change the emphasis, but not necessarily the core meaning.

Classical Latin has no articles.

So Latin does not have separate words for:

• the
• a
• an

That means a noun like iudicem can mean:

• a judge
• the judge

You determine which is best from the context.

So apud iudicem could literally be before a judge or before the judge, depending on the situation.

We know it from both case and verb agreement.

• duo testes is in the nominative plural
• proferunt is 3rd person plural

These match, so duo testes must be the subject: the two witnesses present...

This is an important Latin reading skill: instead of relying mainly on word order, look for case endings and agreement.

It is both understandable literally and natural idiomatically.

Literally:

• proferre = to bring forward
• testimonium = testimony

So testimonium proferre = to bring forward testimony

In smoother English, that often becomes:

• to present testimony
• to give evidence
• to offer testimony

So it is a very natural legal or formal expression in Latin.