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Anthropology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In their attempts to better understand power and agency, Marxist and feminist anthropologists in the 1980s and 1990s wrote a number of ethnographies about the relationship between resistance and the systems that create social inequalities and oppression. <OpenstaxTerm>Resistance</OpenstaxTerm>, at the basic level, refers to the act of challenging power and domination. Power is nearly always resisted in both overt and subtle ways, but the difference is often reflected in how much agency individuals have in resisting systems of domination and oppression. This section uses the example of <OpenstaxTerm>Palestine</OpenstaxTerm> to explore ways in which Palestinians are resisting power.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The creation of the state of Israel in 1948 dispossessed the Palestinians who were indigenous to the land. Between 400 and 600 Palestinian villages were destroyed, and between 700,000 and 750,000 Palestinians were exiled from the portion of Palestine that became Israel.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00004" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/d0e1faa0dffb9a31061e881f1cee76d54f2e692a" alt="Infographic labelled “The History of the Zionist colonization of Palestine” and consisting of four separate maps of what is now Israel, dated from 1882 to Today. In the 1882 map, most of the land is covered with marks indicating Pre-existing/Palestinian localities, with one dot indicating a Zionist/Israeli locality. In the map labelled 1947, the Zionist/Israeli settlement has increased to about 1/3 of all settlements. In the 1966 map, Zionist/Israeli settlement has increased further, now consisting of more than half of all settlements. In the map labelled today, Zionist/Israeli settlements dominate, with Preexisting/Palestinian settlements occupying on a few areas." mediaType="image/png" width="888" height="1667" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="888">
	<strong>Figure 9.5</strong> Zionist colonization and the erasure of Palestinian land and people (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While Israelis celebrate achieving independence in 1948, Palestinians refer to this period of displacement of hundreds of thousands from their homes as the <OpenstaxTerm>Nakba</OpenstaxTerm>, which translates from Arabic as “disaster” or “catastrophe.” The Nakba is ongoing in the <OpenstaxTerm>Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT)</OpenstaxTerm>, which includes the <OpenstaxTerm>West Bank</OpenstaxTerm>, <OpenstaxTerm>East Jerusalem</OpenstaxTerm>, and <OpenstaxTerm>Gaza</OpenstaxTerm>, where the occupation by <OpenstaxTerm>Israel</OpenstaxTerm> is illegal according to international laws. The Nakba is also ongoing for members of the Palestinian <OpenstaxTerm>diaspora</OpenstaxTerm> (the dispersion of a people from their original home) around the world who do not have the right to return.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Palestinians living in the <OpenstaxTerm>West Bank</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>East Jerusalem</OpenstaxTerm> live under a system of checkpoints, military occupation, and segregation from Jewish settlers. Palestinians in <OpenstaxTerm>Gaza</OpenstaxTerm> are living in an open-air prison with extremely limited access to clean water, inconsistent electricity, and no freedom of movement (Erakat and Azzeh 2016). Despite this level of oppression, Palestinians in different parts of the OPT and the Palestinian diaspora still have agency, and they use this agency in different ways to resist Israeli oppression and the devaluation of the Palestinian experience. While political and social movements are critically important for combating injustice and oppression, there are also Palestinians and Israelis working together to create cultural bridges between the communities. One example of this is the <OpenstaxTerm>West-Eastern Divan Orchestra</OpenstaxTerm>.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Founded in 1999 by pianist and conductor Daniel <OpenstaxTerm>Barenboim</OpenstaxTerm>, who was born in Argentina and moved to Israel as a child, and Palestinian scholar and activist Edward <OpenstaxTerm>Said</OpenstaxTerm>, the <a href="https://openstax.org/r/west-eastern-divan">West-Eastern Divan Orchestra</a> is a group of Israeli, Arab, and Palestinian musicians who work to promote equality and understanding across sociopolitical divides. The orchestra travels and performs internationally as an “orchestra against ignorance,” founded on the idea that when musicians come together to create music, they must work in harmony and respect each other. Not only intended to forge strong bonds among the musicians, the orchestra also serves to highlight the importance of respecting cultural differences and of recognizing a common humanity within the Middle East as a whole. Barenboim <a href="https://openstax.org/r/classical-musicandopera">states emphatically</a> that the orchestra’s purpose is not to make peace but to create the <OpenstaxEm>conditions</OpenstaxEm> for peace. Ethnocentrism underlies oppression, and model initiatives such as the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra serve as reminders of the importance of tolerance and respect as deterrents against oppression.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00005" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/6778ca03137222f4720cd818e97fdf982b66c2de" alt="Orchestra members standing to acknowledge applause at the end of a performance." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="800" height="531" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="800">
	<strong>Figure 9.6</strong> The West-Eastern Divan Orchestra brings together musicians from throughout the Middle East with the goal of promoting understanding across cultural divides. (credit: “Barenboim WEDO Salzburg 2013” by WolfD59/Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain)
</OpenstaxFigureText>

9.1.6 Resistance

1 What Is Anthropology?

1.1 The Study of Humanity, or "Anthropology Is Vast"

1.1.1 The Heart of Anthropology: Central Narrative and Commitments

1.1.2 Central Commitment #1: Exploring Sociocultural Diversity

1.1.3 Central Commitment #2: Understanding How Societies Hold Together

1.1.4 Central Commitment #3: Examining the Interdependence of Humans and Nature

1.2 The Four-Field Approach: Four Approaches within the Guiding Narrative

1.2.1 Biological Anthropology

1.2.2 Archaeology

1.2.3 Cultural Anthropology

1.2.4 Linguistic Anthropology

1.2.5 How the Four Fields Work Together: The Example of Race

1.3 Overcoming Ethnocentrism

1.3.1 Enculturation and Ethnocentrism

1.3.2 Primitivism and Orientalism

1.4 Western Bias in Our Assumptions about Humanity

1.4.1 Primitivism and Orientalism in Popular Culture

1.4.2 The Bias of Backwardness

1.5 Holism, Anthropology’s Distinctive Approach

1.5.1 Society as an Integrated Whole

1.5.2 Sources of Contradiction, Conflict, and Change

1.6 Cross-Cultural Comparison and Cultural Relativism

1.6.1 Relativism Is Not “Anything Goes”

1.6.2 Morality, Activism, and Cultural Relativism

1.7 Reaching for an Insider’s Point of View

1.7.1 The Challenge of Representing Others

1.7.2 Collaborative Methods of Representation

1.7.3 Working across Cultures toward Common Goals

1.7.4 Suggested Readings

2 Methods: Cultural and Archaeological

2.1 Archaeological Research Methods

2.1.1 Archaeological Techniques

2.1.2 Archaeological Dating Methods

2.2 Conservation and Naturalism

2.2.1 Early Efforts

2.2.2 Salvage Anthropology

2.2.3 Museum Collections

2.2.4 Interpretation and Voice

2.3 Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.1 The Development of Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.2 Perspective and Interpretation in Ethnography

2.4 Participant Observation and Interviewing

2.4.1 Participant Observation

2.4.2 Interviewing Informants

2.4.3 Ethical Considerations

2.5 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis

2.5.1 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Information

2.5.2 Modeling

2.5.3 The Science of Anthropology

2.6 Collections

2.6.1 Archives

2.6.2 Three-Dimensional Collections

2.6.3 Ownership

2.6.4 Suggested Readings

3 Culture Concept Theory: Theories of Cultural Change

3.1 The Homeyness of Culture

3.2 The Winkiness of Culture

3.3 The Elements of Culture

3.3.1 Culture Is What We Make

3.3.2 Culture Is What We Do

3.3.3 Culture Is What We Think

3.4 The Aggregates of Culture

3.4.1 Symbols

3.4.2 Ritual

3.4.3 Social Structure

3.5 Modes of Cultural Analysis

3.5.1 Evolution, Adaptation, and Historical Particularism

3.5.2 Functionalism

3.5.3 Structuralism

3.5.4 Ontology

3.6 The Paradoxes of Culture

3.6.1 Paradox 1: Culture Is Continuous, but It Changes

3.6.2 Paradox 2: Culture Is Bounded but Mobile

3.6.3 Paradox 3: Culture Is Consensual but Contested

3.6.4 Paradox 4: Culture Is Shared, but It Varies

3.6.5 Suggested Readings

4 Biological Evolution and Early Human Evidence

4.1 What Is Biological Anthropology?

4.1.1 Looking to the Deep Past

4.1.2 Exploring What It Means to Be Human

4.2 What’s in a Name? The Science of Taxonomy

4.2.1 Defining the Science of Taxonomy

4.2.2 Defining a Species

4.3 It’s All in the Genes! The Foundation of Evolution

4.3.1 The Units of Life

4.3.2 Gregor Mendel and the Laws of Heredity

4.3.3 Mendelian Inheritance in Humans

4.4 Evolution in Action: Past and Present

4.4.1 Early Evolutionists and the Fixity of Species

4.4.2 Charles Darwin’s Role in Changing Views of the Natural World

4.4.3 Understanding Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

4.5 What Is a Primate?

4.5.1 What Is a Primate?

4.5.2 Primate Behavioral Variation

4.5.3 Explaining Primate Success

4.5.4 Primate Classification and Taxonomy

4.6 Origin of and Classification of Primates

4.6.1 Understanding Concepts of Time

4.6.2 Fossils and Dating Methods

Question	Answer
the dispersion of a people from their original home.	diaspora
the 1948 displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from their homes; translates from Arabic as “disaster” or “catastrophe.”	Nakba
the act of challenging power and domination.	resistance