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Anthropology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	While <OpenstaxTerm>species</OpenstaxTerm> is a word that most people are familiar with and comfortable using, just what determines a species is incredibly difficult to define. At the most basic level, a species comprises a group of organisms with shared characteristics that distinguish them from other groups. Most scientists distinguish a species based on behavior, genetics, and/or morphology. Species definitions are the basis for scientific names. The <OpenstaxEm>common</OpenstaxEm> name of a species, on the other hand, is usually based on general physical characteristics noted by a culture or local population. Common names are also referred to as <OpenstaxTerm>folk taxonomy</OpenstaxTerm> or <OpenstaxTerm>ethnotaxonomy</OpenstaxTerm> (classifications influenced by culture, etc.). There is a growing interest among anthropologists and the scientific community in preserving Indigenous classifications of the natural world and connecting them with scientific classifications.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Decisions related to classification often involve tremendous taxonomical controversy, especially within the field of biological anthropology. There are more than 20 distinct <OpenstaxTerm>species definitions</OpenstaxTerm>, or ways of categorizing or distinguishing one type of organism from another. Below are the four most common definitions of a species.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Biological Species</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>biological species definition</OpenstaxTerm> states that a species is a group of interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other groups of organisms. <OpenstaxTerm>Reproductive isolation</OpenstaxTerm> means that members of a species are not able to mate successfully with members outside their species. Gorillas, for example, cannot successfully breed with <OpenstaxEm>Pan paniscus</OpenstaxEm>, the bonobo. The biological species definition uses the ability to interbreed as its foundation because successful mating leads to gene flow, or the movement of genetic material from one population to another.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Ecological Species</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>ecological species definition</OpenstaxTerm> emphasizes the role of natural selection in maintaining species boundaries. This concept is based on the idea that <OpenstaxTerm>gene flow</OpenstaxTerm> is neither necessary nor sufficient to maintain species boundaries. Instead, natural selection plays an important role in maintaining the boundaries between species. In nature, species boundaries are often maintained even though there is a substantial amount of gene flow between species. Gene flow between species generally occurs at places called <OpenstaxTerm>hybrid zones</OpenstaxTerm>, areas of overlap where two species are known to successfully breed. A classic example of a hybrid zone occurs on the island of <OpenstaxTerm>Sulawesi</OpenstaxTerm> in Southeast Asia, where <OpenstaxEm>Macaca maura</OpenstaxEm> (the moor macaque) and <OpenstaxEm>Macaca tonkeana</OpenstaxEm> (the Tonkean macaque) are known to have successfully interbred for more than 150 years. Despite this, the integrity of the two distinct species has been maintained.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Phylogenetic Species</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The biological species definition is based on breeding behavior, specifically whether species are capable of mating with one another. This foundation is problematic when trying to identify species over time. It is hard to know whether two fossil specimens were capable of interbreeding. It is also difficult in the fossil record to distinguish between <OpenstaxTerm>interspecific variation</OpenstaxTerm> (differences between members of two different species) and <OpenstaxTerm>intraspecific variation</OpenstaxTerm> (variation within a species). Imagine finding the bones of two individuals, one five feet tall and the other six feet four inches. Identifying whether these individuals were members of two different species (interspecific variation) or representative of the normal variation within a given species would be extremely challenging.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	These problems are addressed by the <OpenstaxTerm>phylogenetic species definition</OpenstaxTerm>. The phylogenetic species definition states that a species can be determined by shared possession of one unique characteristic. For example, imagine you found a group of fossil leg bones. In order to decide if they were from the same species, you would need to determine if they had a trait in common that only these fossil leg bones possessed. If the bones all possessed trait A and this trait was not found in any other species already identified, then you would have a new species, and all of the fossil leg bones could be placed in that species.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Mate Recognition Species</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>mate recognition species definition</OpenstaxTerm> states that a species is a set of organisms that recognize one another as potential mates. A classic example of a group of species that can be distinguished using this definition is American crickets. Within a single habitat in the United States, there might be over 30 different species of crickets. Each species of cricket is known to produce a distinct song. Despite all these different species living side by side, the female cricket of each species will only mate with a male after hearing the male sing her species-specific song. The song, and the female recognition of it, constitutes a mate recognition system. This is analogous to the biological species definition in that the song acts as a reproductive isolating mechanism.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

4.2.2 Defining a Species

1 What Is Anthropology?

1.1 The Study of Humanity, or "Anthropology Is Vast"

1.1.1 The Heart of Anthropology: Central Narrative and Commitments

1.1.2 Central Commitment #1: Exploring Sociocultural Diversity

1.1.3 Central Commitment #2: Understanding How Societies Hold Together

1.1.4 Central Commitment #3: Examining the Interdependence of Humans and Nature

1.2 The Four-Field Approach: Four Approaches within the Guiding Narrative

1.2.1 Biological Anthropology

1.2.2 Archaeology

1.2.3 Cultural Anthropology

1.2.4 Linguistic Anthropology

1.2.5 How the Four Fields Work Together: The Example of Race

1.3 Overcoming Ethnocentrism

1.3.1 Enculturation and Ethnocentrism

1.3.2 Primitivism and Orientalism

1.4 Western Bias in Our Assumptions about Humanity

1.4.1 Primitivism and Orientalism in Popular Culture

1.4.2 The Bias of Backwardness

1.5 Holism, Anthropology’s Distinctive Approach

1.5.1 Society as an Integrated Whole

1.5.2 Sources of Contradiction, Conflict, and Change

1.6 Cross-Cultural Comparison and Cultural Relativism

1.6.1 Relativism Is Not “Anything Goes”

1.6.2 Morality, Activism, and Cultural Relativism

1.7 Reaching for an Insider’s Point of View

1.7.1 The Challenge of Representing Others

1.7.2 Collaborative Methods of Representation

1.7.3 Working across Cultures toward Common Goals

1.7.4 Suggested Readings

2 Methods: Cultural and Archaeological

2.1 Archaeological Research Methods

2.1.1 Archaeological Techniques

2.1.2 Archaeological Dating Methods

2.2 Conservation and Naturalism

2.2.1 Early Efforts

2.2.2 Salvage Anthropology

2.2.3 Museum Collections

2.2.4 Interpretation and Voice

2.3 Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.1 The Development of Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.2 Perspective and Interpretation in Ethnography

2.4 Participant Observation and Interviewing

2.4.1 Participant Observation

2.4.2 Interviewing Informants

2.4.3 Ethical Considerations

2.5 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis

2.5.1 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Information

2.5.2 Modeling

2.5.3 The Science of Anthropology

2.6 Collections

2.6.1 Archives

2.6.2 Three-Dimensional Collections

2.6.3 Ownership

2.6.4 Suggested Readings

3 Culture Concept Theory: Theories of Cultural Change

3.1 The Homeyness of Culture

3.2 The Winkiness of Culture

3.3 The Elements of Culture

3.3.1 Culture Is What We Make

3.3.2 Culture Is What We Do

3.3.3 Culture Is What We Think

3.4 The Aggregates of Culture

3.4.1 Symbols

3.4.2 Ritual

3.4.3 Social Structure

3.5 Modes of Cultural Analysis

3.5.1 Evolution, Adaptation, and Historical Particularism

3.5.2 Functionalism

3.5.3 Structuralism

3.5.4 Ontology

3.6 The Paradoxes of Culture

3.6.1 Paradox 1: Culture Is Continuous, but It Changes

3.6.2 Paradox 2: Culture Is Bounded but Mobile

3.6.3 Paradox 3: Culture Is Consensual but Contested

3.6.4 Paradox 4: Culture Is Shared, but It Varies

3.6.5 Suggested Readings

4 Biological Evolution and Early Human Evidence

4.1 What Is Biological Anthropology?

4.1.1 Looking to the Deep Past

4.1.2 Exploring What It Means to Be Human

4.2 What’s in a Name? The Science of Taxonomy

4.2.1 Defining the Science of Taxonomy

4.3 It’s All in the Genes! The Foundation of Evolution

4.3.1 The Units of Life

4.3.2 Gregor Mendel and the Laws of Heredity

4.3.3 Mendelian Inheritance in Humans

4.4 Evolution in Action: Past and Present

4.4.1 Early Evolutionists and the Fixity of Species

4.4.2 Charles Darwin’s Role in Changing Views of the Natural World

4.4.3 Understanding Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

4.5 What Is a Primate?

4.5.1 What Is a Primate?

4.5.2 Primate Behavioral Variation

4.5.3 Explaining Primate Success

4.5.4 Primate Classification and Taxonomy

4.6 Origin of and Classification of Primates

4.6.1 Understanding Concepts of Time

4.6.2 Fossils and Dating Methods

4.6.3 Making Sense of Fossils

Question	Answer
a definition of species as members of populations that actually or potentially interbreed in nature.	biological species definition
a definition of species that explains differences in form and behavior as the result of adaptations to the environment and natural selection.	ecological species definition
the study of organism classifications and taxonomies developed and used largely by Indigenous peoples and other cultural groups.	ethnotaxonomy
alteration of the frequencies of alleles in a population that results from interbreeding with organisms from another population.	gene flow
areas where two distinct species mate and produce offspring	hybrid zones
the genetic variation seen between two species.	interspecific variation
the genetic variation seen within a species.	intraspecific variation
a definition of species based on individuals all possessing specific derived traits.	phylogenetic species definition
conditions that prevent potentially interbreeding populations from breeding.	reproductive isolation