Chinese, Mandarin

Spanish

English

Hindi

Arabic

Portuguese

Bengali

Russian

Japanese

Punjabi

German

Javanese

Malay

Telugu

Vietnamese

Korean

French

Marathi

Tamil

Urdu

Turkish

Italian

Chinese, Yue / Cantonese

Thai

Gujarati

Chinese, Jin

Chinese, Min Nan

Persian, Dari

Persian, Western

Polish

Pashto

Kannada

Chinese, Xiang

Malayalam

Sundanese

Hausa

Odia

Burmese

Chinese, Hakka

Ukrainian

Bihari, Bhojpuri

Tagalog

Yoruba

Bihari, Maithili

Uzbek

Sindhi

Amharic

Fula

Romanian

Oromo

Igbo

Azerbaijani

Chinese, Gan

Dutch

Kurdish, Central

Kurdish, Northern

Kurdish, Southern

Malagasy

Lahnda, Saraiki

Nepali

Sinhalese

Chittagonian

Zhuang

Khmer

Turkmen

Assamese

Madurese

Somali

Marwari

Bihari, Magahi

Haryanvi

Hungarian

Chhattisgarhi

Greek, Modern

Chewa

Dakhini

Akan, Twi

Akan, Fante

Kazakh

Chinese, Min Bei

Sylheti

Zulu

Czech

Kinyarwanda

Marwari, Dhundhari

Haitian Creole

Chinese, Min Dong

Ilocano

Quechua

Kirundi

Swedish

Hmong

Shona

Uyghur

Hiligaynon

Mossi

Xhosa

Belarusian

Balochi

Anthropology

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Today humanity faces a growing number of global problems, most of them linked to one another and to long-standing historical inequities and injustice. Many of the problems people experience in their daily lives derive from major global issues, which intersect with and affect cultural traditions and contemporary social behaviors. In other words, our global problems are deeply connected to the ways we live locally. Local and global problems connect and reinforce each other.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00001" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/0bacff072aa5da3bd8b25784af6cc8cedcf2d195" alt="Two rows of flags from different nations, with an aisle of grass between them, leading to the entrance of a large stone building with two columns visible in the front." mediaType="image/jpeg" width="800" height="640" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="800">
	<strong>Figure 20.2</strong> The United Nations headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. In 2021, the United Nations identified 22 critical global issues humanity currently faces. (credit: “Palais des Nations Unies, à Genève” by Groov3/Wikimedia Commons, CC0)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In 2021, the <OpenstaxTerm>United Nations</OpenstaxTerm> (UN) identified 22 critical global issues, several worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic. These are challenges that “transcend national boundaries and cannot be resolved by any one country acting alone” (United Nations 2021). Many of these challenges, which affect all nations, are particularly harmful to those facing discrimination, environmental and social racism, and economic poverty. As you read through these “global issues,” notice how many of these challenges are linked together (e.g., Africa, decolonization, democracy, poverty, global health, etc.). Go through this list and note which of these impact you and which might have affected your ancestors. Consider such things as cost of goods and services, possible effects on health and welfare, and even the political instability that might result from these issues, creating global ripple effects. Also, consider how populations suffering various injustices might experience greater impacts than those in otherwise stable communities.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Africa</OpenstaxEm>: promoting democratic institutions, supporting economic and social development, and protecting human rights.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Aging</OpenstaxEm>: responding to the growth of aging populations (ages 60 and over) worldwide.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>AIDS</OpenstaxEm>: continuing to reduce infection and death rates in the global fight against AIDS.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Atomic energy</OpenstaxEm>: promoting the safe, secure, and peaceful operation of more than 440 nuclear reactors generating electricity worldwide.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Big data for sustainable development</OpenstaxEm>: monitoring inclusiveness and fairness in the application of new data sources, technologies, and analyses.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Children</OpenstaxEm>: protecting the rights of every child to health, education, and protection and expanding children’s opportunities.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Climate change</OpenstaxEm>: responding to the unprecedented challenges of shifting weather patterns that threaten food production and create climate emergencies.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Decolonization</OpenstaxEm>: continuing to monitor and encourage self-determination among former colonies, which the UN refers to as a “sacred trust.” When the UN was founded in 1945, approximately 750 million people were living in colonies and dependencies; today, fewer than two million live under colonial rule.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Democracy</OpenstaxEm>: strengthening democracy, “a universally recognized ideal” and a core value of the UN, as a way of strengthening human rights.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Ending poverty</OpenstaxEm>: reducing global poverty rates, which could increase by as much as 8 percent of the world’s population during the COVID-19 pandemic.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Food</OpenstaxEm>: working toward food security and increasing nutrition for the most vulnerable population groups, especially during COVID-19.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Gender equality</OpenstaxEm>: promoting gender equality as both a fundamental human right and a critical factor in achieving peaceful and sustainable societies.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Health</OpenstaxEm>: monitoring, promoting, and protecting health concerns worldwide. Much of the leadership in this area is provided by the World Health Organization (WHO).
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Human rights</OpenstaxEm>: continuing the ongoing effort to guarantee human rights around the globe. This is a central focus of the UN’s work, as set out in the <a href="https://openstax.org/r/un-charter">UN Charter</a> and the <a href="https://openstax.org/r/universal-declaration-of-human-rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>International law and justice</OpenstaxEm>: continuing to promote international law and justice across the three pillars of international peace and security, socioeconomic development and progress, and respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Migration</OpenstaxEm>: ensuring the orderly and humane management of migration, finding practical solutions to migration problems, and providing humanitarian assistance to refugees and internally displaced persons.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Oceans and the law of the sea</OpenstaxEm>: ensuring peaceful, cooperative usage of the oceans and seas to the common benefit for humanity and combating the rising threat of pollution and waste from transport vessels and oil tankers.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Peace and security</OpenstaxEm>: helping restore peace and preventing disputes from escalating into war.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Population</OpenstaxEm>: promoting sexual and reproductive health and individuals’ ability to manage the size of their families.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Refugees</OpenstaxEm>: providing aid and safe haven to the millions of people forcibly displaced worldwide. In 2019, an estimated 79.5 million people were refugees, 26 million of them under the age of 18.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Water</OpenstaxEm>: managing the competition between individual and commercial needs for access to water, which is critical for all human populations.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Youth</OpenstaxEm>: providing for a more just, equitable, and progressive future for persons between the ages of 15 and 24, including ensuring access to health, education, and employment and working toward gender equality.
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Private philanthropists have been working on some of these same problems as well. In 2020, the <OpenstaxTerm>Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation</OpenstaxTerm>, founded in 2000 to work collaboratively with governments to solve critical global health issues, expanded their focus by naming three major action areas for their multibillion-dollar foundation, in addition to ongoing educational priorities:
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxUl>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Climate change</OpenstaxEm>: increasing clean energy, providing zero-emissions energy to low-income countries, and developing innovative approaches to food production.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Gender inequality and gender-based violence</OpenstaxEm>: expanding access to education to improve women’s lives and increasing women’s leadership positions in government, finance, and health.
	</OpenstaxLi>
	<OpenstaxLi>
		<OpenstaxEm>Global health</OpenstaxEm>: sponsoring initiatives to deliver vaccinations and otherwise combat major global diseases, such as AIDS and malaria. (Bass and Bloomberg 2020)
	</OpenstaxLi>
</OpenstaxUl>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	These lists represent only the beginning of the challenges that face us as human beings living on one shared planet. Underpinning these challenges are many others, none more important than the loss of diversities. We face devastating losses in three major areas of diversity: <OpenstaxEm>biological diversity</OpenstaxEm>, as species are increasingly endangered or become extinct; <OpenstaxEm>cultural diversity</OpenstaxEm>, as Indigenous peoples, minorities, and smaller populations in more isolated areas, such as rural areas, face encroachments on their lands and their lives, including their right to exist as diverse cultures; and <OpenstaxEm>linguistic diversity</OpenstaxEm>, with thousands of languages already extinct and many more facing imminent extinction. As diversity declines, our species has fewer options and less flexibility. When we consider that most innovation builds on preexisting forms—whether of biology, culture, or language—the loss of anything that once existed is also a loss of potential, of <OpenstaxEm>what could have been</OpenstaxEm>.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	But all is not doom and gloom. Hope is offered by disciplines, such as anthropology, that work to value and preserve diversities. Anthropology has taken a lead role in bringing positive change to our global world. Projects in which anthropological knowledge and insight is applied to current challenges include language reclamation and revitalization, primate conservation and habitat enrichment, revitalization of traditional foodways and technologies, and other projects to revive, restore, and encourage cultural, biological, and linguistic diversity.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

20.1.1 Critical Global Challenges

1 What Is Anthropology?

1.1 The Study of Humanity, or "Anthropology Is Vast"

1.1.1 The Heart of Anthropology: Central Narrative and Commitments

1.1.2 Central Commitment #1: Exploring Sociocultural Diversity

1.1.3 Central Commitment #2: Understanding How Societies Hold Together

1.1.4 Central Commitment #3: Examining the Interdependence of Humans and Nature

1.2 The Four-Field Approach: Four Approaches within the Guiding Narrative

1.2.1 Biological Anthropology

1.2.2 Archaeology

1.2.3 Cultural Anthropology

1.2.4 Linguistic Anthropology

1.2.5 How the Four Fields Work Together: The Example of Race

1.3 Overcoming Ethnocentrism

1.3.1 Enculturation and Ethnocentrism

1.3.2 Primitivism and Orientalism

1.4 Western Bias in Our Assumptions about Humanity

1.4.1 Primitivism and Orientalism in Popular Culture

1.4.2 The Bias of Backwardness

1.5 Holism, Anthropology’s Distinctive Approach

1.5.1 Society as an Integrated Whole

1.5.2 Sources of Contradiction, Conflict, and Change

1.6 Cross-Cultural Comparison and Cultural Relativism

1.6.1 Relativism Is Not “Anything Goes”

1.6.2 Morality, Activism, and Cultural Relativism

1.7 Reaching for an Insider’s Point of View

1.7.1 The Challenge of Representing Others

1.7.2 Collaborative Methods of Representation

1.7.3 Working across Cultures toward Common Goals

1.7.4 Suggested Readings

2 Methods: Cultural and Archaeological

2.1 Archaeological Research Methods

2.1.1 Archaeological Techniques

2.1.2 Archaeological Dating Methods

2.2 Conservation and Naturalism

2.2.1 Early Efforts

2.2.2 Salvage Anthropology

2.2.3 Museum Collections

2.2.4 Interpretation and Voice

2.3 Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.1 The Development of Ethnography and Ethnology

2.3.2 Perspective and Interpretation in Ethnography

2.4 Participant Observation and Interviewing

2.4.1 Participant Observation

2.4.2 Interviewing Informants

2.4.3 Ethical Considerations

2.5 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis

2.5.1 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Information

2.5.2 Modeling

2.5.3 The Science of Anthropology

2.6 Collections

2.6.1 Archives

2.6.2 Three-Dimensional Collections

2.6.3 Ownership

2.6.4 Suggested Readings

3 Culture Concept Theory: Theories of Cultural Change

3.1 The Homeyness of Culture

3.2 The Winkiness of Culture

3.3 The Elements of Culture

3.3.1 Culture Is What We Make

3.3.2 Culture Is What We Do

3.3.3 Culture Is What We Think

3.4 The Aggregates of Culture

3.4.1 Symbols

3.4.2 Ritual

3.4.3 Social Structure

3.5 Modes of Cultural Analysis

3.5.1 Evolution, Adaptation, and Historical Particularism

3.5.2 Functionalism

3.5.3 Structuralism

3.5.4 Ontology

3.6 The Paradoxes of Culture

3.6.1 Paradox 1: Culture Is Continuous, but It Changes

3.6.2 Paradox 2: Culture Is Bounded but Mobile

3.6.3 Paradox 3: Culture Is Consensual but Contested

3.6.4 Paradox 4: Culture Is Shared, but It Varies

3.6.5 Suggested Readings

4 Biological Evolution and Early Human Evidence

4.1 What Is Biological Anthropology?

4.1.1 Looking to the Deep Past

4.1.2 Exploring What It Means to Be Human

4.2 What’s in a Name? The Science of Taxonomy

4.2.1 Defining the Science of Taxonomy

4.2.2 Defining a Species

4.3 It’s All in the Genes! The Foundation of Evolution

4.3.1 The Units of Life

4.3.2 Gregor Mendel and the Laws of Heredity

4.3.3 Mendelian Inheritance in Humans

4.4 Evolution in Action: Past and Present

4.4.1 Early Evolutionists and the Fixity of Species

4.4.2 Charles Darwin’s Role in Changing Views of the Natural World

4.4.3 Understanding Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

4.5 What Is a Primate?

4.5.1 What Is a Primate?

4.5.2 Primate Behavioral Variation

4.5.3 Explaining Primate Success

4.5.4 Primate Classification and Taxonomy

4.6 Origin of and Classification of Primates

4.6.1 Understanding Concepts of Time

4.6.2 Fossils and Dating Methods