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Philosophy

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In <OpenstaxTerm>Daoism</OpenstaxTerm>, the <OpenstaxEm><strong>dao</strong></OpenstaxEm> is often translated as “the way.” Daoists rejected the narrow Confucian view of <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> as a way of behaving in society to ensure order and social harmony, and instead view the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> as the natural way of the universe and all things. The <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> is represented as the source or origin of all that exists. Daoism tells us that we must live in accord with the dao if we want to live a good life or live well.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Properties</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the very first chapter of the <OpenstaxEm>Daodejing</OpenstaxEm>, we learn that the “<OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>” that can be spoken of or named is not <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>: “Nameless: the origin of heaven and earth. Naming: the mother of ten thousand things” (Laozi [ca. 6th century BC] 1993, 1). When you name something, when you speak about it, you pick it out and give it a definite identity. <OpenstaxEm>Dao</OpenstaxEm> is the source of all that exists, of all characteristics and properties, but it is itself without limits and impossible to define. It represents the underlying connectedness and oneness of everything. <OpenstaxEm>Dao</OpenstaxEm> is an inexhaustible source of existence, of things, and it is that to which all things return.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Naturalism</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In moral <OpenstaxTerm>philosophy</OpenstaxTerm>, <strong>naturalism</strong> is the belief that ethical claims can be derived from nonethical ones. In Daoism, “moral <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> must be rooted in natural ways” (Hansen 2020). It emphasizes living in accord with nature by following the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>, or natural way of things. The individual who lives in the right way lives in accord with nature and exists in harmony with it. Daoism characterizes a fulfilling life as a calm, simple life, one that is free from desires and greed. Its focus on returning to nature, on naturalness, and on living in harmony with the natural world makes Daoism a naturalistic philosophy.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Daoist Metaphysics</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxEm>Daodejing</OpenstaxEm> offers a metaphysical perspective. The <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> is characterized as the source of all things that exist, as the source of being and nonbeing. In Chapter 4 of the <OpenstaxEm>Daodejing</OpenstaxEm>, <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> is said to be “empty—Its use never exhausted. Bottomless—The origin of all things” (Laozi [ca. 6th century BC] 1993, 4). The source of all that exists, of change, the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> nevertheless remains unchanging. Daoism, then, can be read as a philosophy that provides answers to important metaphysical questions in its exploration of the underlying nature of existence.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The metaphysical account of reality found in Daoism provides a foundation for other Daoist positions. Daoism’s naturalistic philosophy is supported by its metaphysical claims. The <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> is the <OpenstaxEm>source</OpenstaxEm> of all, and living in accordance with it is living in accordance with the natural way, with the flow of all existence. Daoists claim, therefore, that we act morally when we act in accord with the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> and thus in accord with the natural way of things. Their metaphysics suggests a view of the world that recognizes the dynamic connections and interdependence of all things that exist. When we name things, when we differentiate things and treat them as individual, existing entities, we ignore the fact that nothing exists on its own independent of the whole. To truly understand existence, then, Daoists urge us to be more aware of and sensitive to the way everything depends on and is connected to everything else. Each thing is a part of a larger, ever-changing whole.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Skepticism, Inclusion, and Acceptance</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	In the <OpenstaxEm>Daodejing</OpenstaxEm>, it can be hard to grasp or form a clear conception of the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>. In fact, when Zhuangzi expands upon the earlier teachings of Laozi, he “repeatedly brings forth the issue of whether and how the <OpenstaxEm>Dao</OpenstaxEm> can be known” (Pregadio 2020). The <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> cannot be known in the sense in which we normally know things about ourselves, objects, or our world. Daoism is thus skeptical not only about those things humans have so far claimed to know and value, but also skeptical that knowledge of the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> is possible. This <OpenstaxTerm>skepticism</OpenstaxTerm> regarding the extent to which we can know the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> pushes Daoism to be inclusive and accepting. It makes Daoism open to and accepting of various interpretations and readings of the <OpenstaxEm>Daodejing</OpenstaxEm> so long as through them we are able to live in accordance with the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>—to live a fulfilling life.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Paradox and Puzzles</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Throughout the <OpenstaxEm>Daodejing</OpenstaxEm>, there is paradoxical and puzzling language. For example, it says that the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> “in its regular course does nothing . . . and so there is nothing which it does not do” (Laozi [ca. 6th century BC] 1993, 37). The paradoxical ways the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm> is described within the texts is a way to bring attention to or highlight a way of thinking that is fundamentally different from our everyday experience of the world. Indeed, Daoists believe that our problems are a consequence of our regular way of being in the world and living without awareness of the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>. We are accustomed to treating things as distinct, definable entities, and we think of ourselves in the same terms. Unaware of the <OpenstaxEm>dao</OpenstaxEm>, of the true nature of reality, we act against it and cause pain and suffering. Through paradoxical language and expressions, Daoism attempts to make us aware of something greater that is the generative source of existence. It challenges us to look at things differently and change our perspective so that we can see that our pain and suffering is a consequence of conventional values and beliefs. It attempts to sidestep the limitations of language by using paradoxes and puzzles to encourage and promote a deeper awareness of the nature of existence. Daoists criticize the way humans normally live because it fosters and encourages bad thinking, problematic values, and resistance to living differently.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

9.5.1 The Dao

1 Introduction to Philosophy

1.1 What Is Philosophy?

1.1.1 Historical Origins of Philosophy

1.1.2 How It All Hangs Together

1.2 How Do Philosophers Arrive at Truth?

1.2.1 Sources of Evidence

1.2.2 Logic

1.2.3 Conceptual Analysis

1.2.4 Trade-offs

1.3 Socrates as a Paradigmatic Historical Philosopher

1.3.1 “The Life Which Is Unexamined Is Not Worth Living”

1.3.2 Human Wisdom Is Worth Little or Nothing

1.3.3 The Importance of Doing No Harm

1.4 An Overview of Contemporary Philosophy

1.4.1 What Can You Do with a Philosophy Major?

1.4.2 An Overview of Your Philosophy Textbook

2 Critical Thinking, Research, Reading, and Writing

2.1 The Brain Is an Inference Machine

2.1.1 The Brain’s Adaptive Ability to Plan Ahead

2.1.2 The Evolutionary Advantage of Shortcuts

2.2 Overcoming Cognitive Biases and Engaging in Critical Reflection

2.2.1 Critical Reflection and Metacognition

2.2.2 Cognitive Biases

2.3 Developing Good Habits of Mind

2.3.1 Strive for Objectivity

2.3.2 Adopt Epistemic Humility

2.4 Gathering Information, Evaluating Sources, and Understanding Evidence

2.4.1 Start with a Strong Foundation

2.4.2 The SIFT Method (Four Moves for Student Fact Checkers)

2.5 Reading Philosophy

2.5.1 Prepare to Read

2.5.2 Engaging with Philosophical Texts

2.5.3 Pre-reading

2.5.4 First Read

2.5.5 Close Read

2.6 Writing Philosophy Papers

2.6.1 Identify Claims

2.6.2 Collect Evidence and Build Your Case

2.6.3 Organize Your Paper

3 The Early History of Philosophy around the World

3.1 Indigenous Philosophy

3.1.1 Challenges in Researching Indigenous Philosophy

3.1.2 Indigenous African Philosophy

3.1.3 Indigenous North American Philosophical Thought

3.1.4 Mesoamerican Philosophy

3.2 Classical Indian Philosophy

3.2.1 The Vedic Tradition

3.2.2 Classical Indian Darshanas

3.3 Classical Chinese Philosophy

3.3.1 Early Chinese Philosophical Thought prior to Confucius

3.3.2 Confucianism

3.3.3 Daoism

3.3.4 Mohism

4 The Emergence of Classical Philosophy

4.1 Historiography and the History of Philosophy

4.1.1 Presentist Approach

4.1.2 Contextualist Approach

4.1.3 Hermeneutic Approach

4.2 Classical Philosophy

4.2.1 Egyptian Origins of Classical Philosophy

4.2.2 Ancient Greek Philosophy

4.2.3 The Presocratics

4.2.4 Socrates and Plato

4.2.5 Aristotle

4.2.6 Epicureans

4.2.7 Roman Philosophy

4.3 Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Philosophy

4.3.1 Defining Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Philosophy

4.3.2 Early Jewish Philosophy

4.3.3 Early Christian Philosophy

4.3.4 Islamic Philosophy

4.3.5 Late Medieval Philosophy in Christian Europe

4.3.6 Jewish Philosophers in the Christian and Islamic Worlds

4.3.7 The Rise of Reason in the Early Modern Era

5 Logic and Reasoning

5.1 Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth

5.1.1 Dialectics and Philosophical Argumentation

5.1.2 The Use of Reason to Discover Truth

5.1.3 Testing Hypotheses

5.1.4 Laws of Logic

5.1.5 Normativity in Logic

5.2 Logical Statements

5.2.1 Conditionals

5.2.2 Universal Statements

5.3 Arguments

5.3.1 Getting to the Premises

5.3.2 The Difference between Truth and Logic

5.4 Types of Inferences

5.4.1 Deductive Reasoning

5.4.2 Inductive Inferences

5.4.3 Abductive Reasoning

5.5 Informal Fallacies

5.5.1 Fallacies of Relevance

5.5.2 Fallacies of Weak Induction

5.5.3 Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption

5.5.4 Fallacies of Diversion

6 Metaphysics

6.1 Substance

6.1.1 Fundamentality: The One and the Many

Question	Answer
a belief system developed in ancient China that encourages the practice of living in accordance with the dao, the natural way of the universe and all things	Daoism
a philosophical position that claims people do not know things they ordinarily think they know	skepticism