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Philosophy

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The word <OpenstaxEm><OpenstaxTerm>darshana</OpenstaxTerm></OpenstaxEm> derives from a Sanskrit word meaning “to view.” In Hindu philosophy, <OpenstaxEm>darshana</OpenstaxEm> refers to the beholding of a god, a holy person, or a sacred object. This experience is reciprocal: the religious believer beholds the deity and is beheld by the deity in turn. Those who behold the sacred are blessed by this encounter. The term <OpenstaxEm>darshana</OpenstaxEm> is also used to refer to six classical schools of thought based on views or manifestations of the divine—six ways of seeing and being seen by the divine. The six principal orthodox Hindu <OpenstaxEm>darshanas</OpenstaxEm> are Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. Non-Hindu or heterodox <OpenstaxEm>darshanas</OpenstaxEm> include Buddhism and Jainism.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Samkhya</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Samkhya</OpenstaxTerm> is a dualistic school of philosophy that holds that everything is composed of <OpenstaxEm><OpenstaxTerm>purusha</OpenstaxTerm></OpenstaxEm> (pure, absolute consciousness) and <OpenstaxEm><OpenstaxTerm>prakriti</OpenstaxTerm></OpenstaxEm> (matter). An evolutionary process gets underway when <OpenstaxEm>purusha</OpenstaxEm> comes into contact with<OpenstaxEm> prakriti</OpenstaxEm>. These admixtures of mind and matter produce more or less pure things such as the human mind, the five senses, the intellect, and the ego as well as various manifestations of material things. Living beings occur when <OpenstaxEm>purusha</OpenstaxEm> and <OpenstaxEm>prakriti</OpenstaxEm> bond together. Liberation finally occurs when mind is freed from the bondage of matter.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxNote>
	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Connections </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
	<OpenstaxParagraph>
		The chapter on <a href="./fe58be6f-3b61-4e16-b3b6-db6924f0b2f2@a904be0:44c6a620-7a46-4a76-8bc3-34c2ce338f61.xhtml">metaphysics</a> explores Hindu and Buddhist views of self that emerged from Samkhya metaphysics.
	</OpenstaxParagraph>
</OpenstaxNote>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Western readers should take care not to reduce Samkhya’s metaphysics and epistemology to the various dualistic systems seen in, for example, the account of the soul in Plato’s <OpenstaxEm>Phaedo</OpenstaxEm> or in Christian metaphysics more generally. The metaphysical system of creation in Samkhya is much more complex than either of these Western examples.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	When <OpenstaxEm>purusha</OpenstaxEm> first focuses on <OpenstaxEm>prakriti</OpenstaxEm>,<OpenstaxEm> <OpenstaxTerm>buddhi</OpenstaxTerm></OpenstaxEm>, or spiritual awareness, results. Spiritual awareness gives rise to the individualized ego or I-consciousness that creates five gross elements (space, air, earth, fire, water) and then five fine elements (sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste). These in turn give rise to the five sense organs, the five organs of activity (used to speak, grasp, move, procreate, and evacuate), and the mind that coordinates them.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxFigure id="fig-00002" src="https://openstax.org/apps/archive/20240226.174525/resources/eb698b596f44b0f66efaed27171e7ef6a18297fc" alt="A sketch of a tree with various labels and arrows depicting a flow of energy travelling down its trunk and into its roots. Above the tree are two circles, one labelled “Parusha (consciousness)” and the other “Prakriti (unmanifest, primordial “matter”)”. Arrows depict energy swirling around these circles and down the trunk, along the way passing through boxes labelled “Mahat or Buddhi (first principle of individuation, intelligence, discrimination)” and “Ahamkara (ego, allowing of self-identity)”. Near the roots of the trees, the energy splits. One portion travels through a box labelled “Mind” and then into two sections, labelled “Cognitive Senses (jnanendriyas)(hearing, touching, seeing, tasting, smelling)” and “Active Instruments (karmendriyas)(speaking, holding, moving, procreating, eliminating)”. The other branch flows into a box labelled “Subtle Elements (tanmatras)” and then into a box labelled “Gross Elements (bhutas)(earth, water, fire, air, space).”" mediaType="image/png" width="1826" height="2366" />
<OpenstaxFigureText width="1826">
	<strong>Figure 3.7</strong> In Hinduism, the interaction between purusha (pure, absolute consciousness) and prakriti (matter) is understood to result in many elements of existence. (attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC BY 4.0 license)
</OpenstaxFigureText>
<OpenstaxH3>Yoga</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Yoga has become popularized as a fitness practice throughout the world, but the Westernization of this concept has emptied it of much of its original content. Although yoga instructors will still sometimes use Sanskrit terms for various poses, the movement has largely lost its cultural and spiritual vitality as it has become popular in the West. It originally developed during the Vedic period and influenced Buddhist meditation practices.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	First mentioned in the <OpenstaxEm>Rigveda</OpenstaxEm>, Yoga is the mental process through which an individual’s soul joins with the supreme soul. Originally a part of the Samkhya school, it emerged as a practice during the first millennium BCE. The teachings of the sage <OpenstaxTerm>Patanjali</OpenstaxTerm>, who lived circa 400 BCE, regarding ancient Yoga traditions and beliefs were compiled into approximately 200 Yoga sutras. The purpose of Yoga is the stopping of the movement of thought. Only then do individuals encounter their true selves, and only then is the distinction between the observer and that which is being observed overcome (Rodrigues 2018).
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	Yoga involves eight limbs. The first involves the observance of the <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>yamas</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>, moral restraints that keep individuals from being violent, lying, stealing, hoarding, and squandering vital energies (often interpreted as a practice of celibacy). The second limb consists of personal codes of conduct, known as the <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>niyamas</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>—purity, discipline, self-study, contentment (gratitude and nonattachment), and surrender to the higher being. The third and fourth limbs, familiar to Western practitioners, are the postures, <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>asana</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>, and breath control, <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>pranayama</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>. The fifth and sixth limbs involve the mastering of the senses needed to achieve a peaceful mind and focus, the ability to concentrate deeply on one thing—a mental image, a word, or a spot on the wall (Showkeir and Showkeir 2013). The seventh limb involves meditation, which allows one to reach the eight limb, <OpenstaxEm>samadhi</OpenstaxEm>, the oneness of the self and true reality, the supreme soul.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	During the Upanishadic period (900–200 BCE), Yoga was incorporated into the new philosophic traditions that gave rise to Jainism and Buddhism. Yoga influenced the emergence of Bhakti and Sufism within Islamic culture in the 15th century CE following the conquest of India by Islamic leaders. New schools and theories of Yoga evolved. Swami Vivekananda’s translations of scriptures into English facilitated the spread of Yoga in the West in the 19th century. Today, Yoga is practiced as a form of spirituality across the globe (Pradhan 2015).
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<OpenstaxH3>Nyaya</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Nyaya</OpenstaxTerm>, which can be translated as “method” or “rule,” focuses on logic and epistemology. Scholars seek to develop four of the Hindu <OpenstaxEm>pramanas</OpenstaxEm>, or proofs, as reliable ways of gaining knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. Practitioners seek liberation from suffering through right knowledge. They believe that everything that exists could be directly perceived and understood if only one had the proper method for doing so. False knowledge is delusion that precludes purification and enlightenment.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Vaisheshika</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>Vaisheshika</OpenstaxTerm> system developed independently of Nyaya but gradually came to share many of its core ideas. Its epistemology is simpler, allowing for only perception and inference as forms of reliable knowledge. It is known for its naturalism, and scholars of the Vaisheshika school developed a form of atomism. The atoms themselves are understood to be indestructible in their pure state, but as they enter into combinations with one another, these mixtures can be decomposed. Members of the Vaisheshika school believe that only complete knowledge can lead to purification and liberation.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Mimamsa</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The <OpenstaxTerm>Mimamsa</OpenstaxTerm> school was one of the earliest philosophical schools of Hinduism, grounded in the interpretation of the Vedic texts. It seeks to investigate <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>dharma</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>, or the duties, rituals, and norms present in society. The gods themselves are irrelevant to this endeavor, so there are both theistic and atheistic aspects of this school. Scholars of the Mimamsa school carefully investigate language because they believe that language prescribes how humans ought to behave.
</OpenstaxParagraph>
<OpenstaxH3>Vedanta</OpenstaxH3>
<OpenstaxParagraph>
	<OpenstaxTerm>Vedanta</OpenstaxTerm> comprises a number of schools that focus on the Upanishads, and the term itself signifies the end or culmination of the <OpenstaxTerm>Vedas</OpenstaxTerm>. All the various Vedanta schools hold that <OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>brahman</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm> exists as the unchanging cause of the universe. The self is the agent of its own acts (<OpenstaxTerm><OpenstaxEm>karma</OpenstaxEm></OpenstaxTerm>), and each agent gets their due as a result of karma. As with the other Hindu schools, adherents of Vedanta seek <OpenstaxTerm>liberation</OpenstaxTerm> from the cycle of death and rebirth.
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<OpenstaxParagraph>
	Like many philosophical traditions, classical Indian philosophy casts the living world as something to ultimately escape. Practices and teachings such as Yoga provide a particularly explicit set of instructions on how one might go about achieving this transcendent aim. The incorporation of these teachings into other traditions and cultures, in both the past and the present, points to their broad and enduring appeal.
</OpenstaxParagraph>

3.2.2 Classical Indian Darshanas

1 Introduction to Philosophy

1.1 What Is Philosophy?

1.1.1 Historical Origins of Philosophy

1.1.2 How It All Hangs Together

1.2 How Do Philosophers Arrive at Truth?

1.2.1 Sources of Evidence

1.2.2 Logic

1.2.3 Conceptual Analysis

1.2.4 Trade-offs

1.3 Socrates as a Paradigmatic Historical Philosopher

1.3.1 “The Life Which Is Unexamined Is Not Worth Living”

1.3.2 Human Wisdom Is Worth Little or Nothing

1.3.3 The Importance of Doing No Harm

1.4 An Overview of Contemporary Philosophy

1.4.1 What Can You Do with a Philosophy Major?

1.4.2 An Overview of Your Philosophy Textbook

2 Critical Thinking, Research, Reading, and Writing

2.1 The Brain Is an Inference Machine

2.1.1 The Brain’s Adaptive Ability to Plan Ahead

2.1.2 The Evolutionary Advantage of Shortcuts

2.2 Overcoming Cognitive Biases and Engaging in Critical Reflection

2.2.1 Critical Reflection and Metacognition

2.2.2 Cognitive Biases

2.3 Developing Good Habits of Mind

2.3.1 Strive for Objectivity

2.3.2 Adopt Epistemic Humility

2.4 Gathering Information, Evaluating Sources, and Understanding Evidence

2.4.1 Start with a Strong Foundation

2.4.2 The SIFT Method (Four Moves for Student Fact Checkers)

2.5 Reading Philosophy

2.5.1 Prepare to Read

2.5.2 Engaging with Philosophical Texts

2.5.3 Pre-reading

2.5.4 First Read

2.5.5 Close Read

2.6 Writing Philosophy Papers

2.6.1 Identify Claims

2.6.2 Collect Evidence and Build Your Case

2.6.3 Organize Your Paper

3 The Early History of Philosophy around the World

3.1 Indigenous Philosophy

3.1.1 Challenges in Researching Indigenous Philosophy

3.1.2 Indigenous African Philosophy

3.1.3 Indigenous North American Philosophical Thought

3.1.4 Mesoamerican Philosophy

3.2 Classical Indian Philosophy

3.2.1 The Vedic Tradition

3.3 Classical Chinese Philosophy

3.3.1 Early Chinese Philosophical Thought prior to Confucius

3.3.2 Confucianism

3.3.3 Daoism

3.3.4 Mohism

4 The Emergence of Classical Philosophy

4.1 Historiography and the History of Philosophy

4.1.1 Presentist Approach

4.1.2 Contextualist Approach

4.1.3 Hermeneutic Approach

4.2 Classical Philosophy

4.2.1 Egyptian Origins of Classical Philosophy

4.2.2 Ancient Greek Philosophy

4.2.3 The Presocratics

4.2.4 Socrates and Plato

4.2.5 Aristotle

4.2.6 Epicureans

4.2.7 Roman Philosophy

4.3 Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Philosophy

4.3.1 Defining Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Philosophy

4.3.2 Early Jewish Philosophy

4.3.3 Early Christian Philosophy

4.3.4 Islamic Philosophy

4.3.5 Late Medieval Philosophy in Christian Europe

4.3.6 Jewish Philosophers in the Christian and Islamic Worlds

4.3.7 The Rise of Reason in the Early Modern Era

5 Logic and Reasoning

5.1 Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth

5.1.1 Dialectics and Philosophical Argumentation

5.1.2 The Use of Reason to Discover Truth

5.1.3 Testing Hypotheses

5.1.4 Laws of Logic

5.1.5 Normativity in Logic

5.2 Logical Statements

5.2.1 Conditionals

5.2.2 Universal Statements

5.3 Arguments

5.3.1 Getting to the Premises

5.3.2 The Difference between Truth and Logic

5.4 Types of Inferences

5.4.1 Deductive Reasoning

5.4.2 Inductive Inferences

5.4.3 Abductive Reasoning

5.5 Informal Fallacies

5.5.1 Fallacies of Relevance

5.5.2 Fallacies of Weak Induction

5.5.3 Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption

5.5.4 Fallacies of Diversion

6 Metaphysics

6.1 Substance

6.1.1 Fundamentality: The One and the Many

6.1.2 Ontological Perspectives on Substance

Question	Answer
a way of beholding the sacred or manifestations of the divine in Hindu thought.	Darshana
in Hindu thought, matter; one of two elements that make up the universe.	Prakriti
in Hindu thought, pure, absolute consciousness; one of two elements that make up the universe.	Purusha
a dualist approach in Hindu metaphysics that views the universe as composed of pure consciousness and matter, which undergoes an evolutionary process.	Samkhya