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Philosophy

<OpenstaxParagraph>
	The philosophical battle over whether there is one nonnegotiable reality took shape in conversations around <OpenstaxTerm>structuralism</OpenstaxTerm> and <OpenstaxTerm>post-structuralism</OpenstaxTerm>. Structuralists historically looked to verbal language and mathematics to show that symbols cannot refer to just anything we want them to refer to. For example, most people would say it is ridiculous to use the word <OpenstaxEm>car</OpenstaxEm> to refer to a dog. Rather, language and mathematics are universal systems of communication emerging from a universal structure of things. This claim sounds similar to Platonic idealism, in which the structures that ground our world are understood as intangible “forms.”
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	<OpenstaxNoteTitle> Connections </OpenstaxNoteTitle> 
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		You can learn more about Plato’s concept of forms in the chapter on <a href="./fe58be6f-3b61-4e16-b3b6-db6924f0b2f2@a904be0:44c6a620-7a46-4a76-8bc3-34c2ce338f61.xhtml">metaphysics</a>.
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	Post-structuralists argue that universal structures are abstract ideas that cannot be proven to exist. They contend that structuralists are mistaken in their understanding of the internal workings of language—or any system—as unmediated (or not influenced by the outside world). This mistake, they argue, had misled people into believing in a universal structure of things. <OpenstaxTerm>Post-structuralism</OpenstaxTerm> suggests that the meaning of things is in perpetual authorship, or is always being created and recreated. Post-structuralists dispute the claim that any universal system of relations exists. Rather, they argue that anything presented as a universal system is in fact the product of human imaginations and almost certainly reinforced by the power dynamics of a society.
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	One clear example of the post-structuralist critique of structuralism can be found in the debate over psychoanalysis.
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<OpenstaxH3>Freud’s Structuralism in Psychology</OpenstaxH3>
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	The theory of <OpenstaxTerm>psychoanalysis</OpenstaxTerm> is based on the idea that all humans have suppressed elements of their unconscious minds and that these elements will liberate them if they are confronted. This idea was proposed and developed by Austrian neurologist Sigmund <OpenstaxTerm>Freud</OpenstaxTerm> (1856–1939). For Freud, psychoanalysis was not only a theory but also a method, which he used to free his patients from challenges such as depression and anxiety. In Freud’s early thinking, the “unconscious” was defined as the realm in which feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that exist outside of consciousness reside. These elements of the unconscious were understood to set the stage for conscious experience and influence the human automatically (Westen 1999). Freud later abandoned the use of the word <OpenstaxEm>unconscious</OpenstaxEm> (Carlson et al. 2010, 453), shifting instead to three separate terms: <OpenstaxEm>id</OpenstaxEm>, referring to human instincts; <OpenstaxEm>superego</OpenstaxEm>, indicating the enforcer of societal conventions such as cultural norms and ethics (Schacter, Gilbert, and Wegner 2011, 481); and <OpenstaxEm>ego</OpenstaxEm>, describing the conscious part of human thought. With these three terms, Freud proposed a universal structure of the mind.
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<OpenstaxH3>Post-structuralist and Feminist Critiques of Psychoanalysis</OpenstaxH3>
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	Post-structuralists point out that Freud’s ideas about psychoanalysis and universal structures of the mind cannot be proven. The subconscious foundations on which psychoanalysis is grounded simply cannot be observed. Some have argued that there is no substantive difference between the claims of psychoanalysts and those of shamans or other practitioners of methods of healing not grounded in empirical methods (Torrey 1986). French philosopher Gilles <OpenstaxTerm>Deleuze</OpenstaxTerm> (1925–1995) and French psychoanalyst Felix <OpenstaxTerm>Guattari</OpenstaxTerm> (1930–1992) took an even harsher approach, presenting psychoanalysis as a means of reinforcing oppressive state control.
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	Belgian philosopher Luce <OpenstaxTerm>Irigaray</OpenstaxTerm> (b. 1930) and others have criticized Freud’s ideas from a feminist perspective, accusing psychoanalysts of excluding women from their theories. In this view, psychoanalysis is based on a patriarchal understanding. Those taking this view point out that <OpenstaxTerm>Freud</OpenstaxTerm> made a number of patriarchal claims, including that sexuality and subjectivity are inseparably connected, and that he viewed women as problematic throughout his life (Zakin 2011). Yet many psychoanalytic feminists express a critical appreciation for Freud, utilizing what they find valuable in his theories and ignoring other aspects.
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<OpenstaxH3>Ferdinand de Saussure and the Structure of Linguistics</OpenstaxH3>
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	Along with US pragmatist C. S. <OpenstaxTerm>Pierce</OpenstaxTerm> (1839–1914), Swiss philosopher, linguist, and semiotician Ferdinand <OpenstaxTerm>de Saussure</OpenstaxTerm> (1857–1913) was responsible for creating a system of linguistic analysis known as <OpenstaxTerm>semiotics</OpenstaxTerm>. Semiotics is an analysis of how meaning is created through symbols, both linguistic and nonlinguistic. One of the foundational tenets of Saussure’s linguistic theory is the idea that language has both an abstract (<OpenstaxEm>langue</OpenstaxEm>) component and an experiential (<OpenstaxEm>parole</OpenstaxEm>) component, what we hear or see when it is used every day. A word alludes to an intangible essence represented by a sound or collection of visible symbols (Fendler 2010). This audible or visual expression has a distinct life from that which it represents. Language is a system that functions according to certain rules, which allow for some things but not others. For example, we can’t say a person is walking and standing still at the same time (Nöth 1990). As an audible or visual expression, however, language is also a product of society. For example, the word <OpenstaxEm>dope</OpenstaxEm>, which conventionally meant narcotics, has also come to signify something that is well-done. Saussure held that there were structural laws that define how linguistic signification operated; the <OpenstaxTerm>semiotics</OpenstaxTerm> of Saussure and Pierce were the means of discovering these laws. Semiotics became a cornerstone of structuralism.
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<OpenstaxH3>Wittgenstein and the Linguistic Turn</OpenstaxH3>
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	Structuralism was accompanied by what is known in philosophy as the <OpenstaxTerm>linguistic turn</OpenstaxTerm>. The term <OpenstaxEm>linguistic turn</OpenstaxEm> comes from Austrian philosopher Gustav <OpenstaxTerm>Bergmann</OpenstaxTerm> (1906–1987). It refers to philosophical movements in the Anglophone world starting in the early 20th century that privileged verifiable statements over statements that could not be verified. Since the statement “I can see clearly now” could be verified by a vision test, it would have more value than the statement “God exists,” which is not verifiable (Rorty 1991, 50).
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	The view that language has internal continuity was championed by the early work of Austrian philosopher Ludwig <OpenstaxTerm>Wittgenstein</OpenstaxTerm> (1889–1951) but rejected in his later work. In later works, such as <OpenstaxEm>Philosophical Investigations</OpenstaxEm>, Wittgenstein concludes that language is verifiable only within its particular context. For example, the claim “God exists” may not be verifiable for an adherent of analytic philosophy (a term for the branch of philosophy concerned with statements that can be proved to be logically possible through analysis). However, the claim might be verifiable for a person who has had an experience with a particular deity or deities, as their very experience is the proof.
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<OpenstaxH3>Key Post-structuralist Ideas about Self and Text</OpenstaxH3>
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	Associated with the thought of French philosophers Michel <OpenstaxTerm>Foucault</OpenstaxTerm> (1926–1984), Gilles <OpenstaxTerm>Deleuze</OpenstaxTerm> (1925–1995), and Roland <OpenstaxTerm>Barthes</OpenstaxTerm> (1915–1980) and US philosophers Alfred North <OpenstaxTerm>Whitehead</OpenstaxTerm> (1861–1947) and Judith <OpenstaxTerm>Butler</OpenstaxTerm> (b. 1956), among others, post-structuralism proposes new ideas about our understanding of the self and our interpretations of texts. Post-structuralism proposes that there is no such thing as a preexistent human “self” outside of its construction by society; what we call the “self” is a confluence of geographical region of birth, upbringing, social pressure, political issues, and other situational circumstances. For the post-structuralist, however, there is an experiencing entity perpetually in process, and that experiencing entity cannot be constricted to the boundaries of what we think of as the “self.” Similarly emphasizing context, post-structuralists argue that the meaning intended by the author of a text is secondary to the meaning that the audience derives from their encounter with the text and that a variety of interpretations of a text are needed, even if the interpretations that are generated are conflicting.
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12.5.1 Structuralism and Post-structuralism

1 Introduction to Philosophy

1.1 What Is Philosophy?

1.1.1 Historical Origins of Philosophy

1.1.2 How It All Hangs Together

1.2 How Do Philosophers Arrive at Truth?

1.2.1 Sources of Evidence

1.2.2 Logic

1.2.3 Conceptual Analysis

1.2.4 Trade-offs

1.3 Socrates as a Paradigmatic Historical Philosopher

1.3.1 “The Life Which Is Unexamined Is Not Worth Living”

1.3.2 Human Wisdom Is Worth Little or Nothing

1.3.3 The Importance of Doing No Harm

1.4 An Overview of Contemporary Philosophy

1.4.1 What Can You Do with a Philosophy Major?

1.4.2 An Overview of Your Philosophy Textbook

2 Critical Thinking, Research, Reading, and Writing

2.1 The Brain Is an Inference Machine

2.1.1 The Brain’s Adaptive Ability to Plan Ahead

2.1.2 The Evolutionary Advantage of Shortcuts

2.2 Overcoming Cognitive Biases and Engaging in Critical Reflection

2.2.1 Critical Reflection and Metacognition

2.2.2 Cognitive Biases

2.3 Developing Good Habits of Mind

2.3.1 Strive for Objectivity

2.3.2 Adopt Epistemic Humility

2.4 Gathering Information, Evaluating Sources, and Understanding Evidence

2.4.1 Start with a Strong Foundation

2.4.2 The SIFT Method (Four Moves for Student Fact Checkers)

2.5 Reading Philosophy

2.5.1 Prepare to Read

2.5.2 Engaging with Philosophical Texts

2.5.3 Pre-reading

2.5.4 First Read

2.5.5 Close Read

2.6 Writing Philosophy Papers

2.6.1 Identify Claims

2.6.2 Collect Evidence and Build Your Case

2.6.3 Organize Your Paper

3 The Early History of Philosophy around the World

3.1 Indigenous Philosophy

3.1.1 Challenges in Researching Indigenous Philosophy

3.1.2 Indigenous African Philosophy

3.1.3 Indigenous North American Philosophical Thought

3.1.4 Mesoamerican Philosophy

3.2 Classical Indian Philosophy

3.2.1 The Vedic Tradition

3.2.2 Classical Indian Darshanas

3.3 Classical Chinese Philosophy

3.3.1 Early Chinese Philosophical Thought prior to Confucius

3.3.2 Confucianism

3.3.3 Daoism

3.3.4 Mohism

4 The Emergence of Classical Philosophy

4.1 Historiography and the History of Philosophy

4.1.1 Presentist Approach

4.1.2 Contextualist Approach

4.1.3 Hermeneutic Approach

4.2 Classical Philosophy

4.2.1 Egyptian Origins of Classical Philosophy

4.2.2 Ancient Greek Philosophy

4.2.3 The Presocratics

4.2.4 Socrates and Plato

4.2.5 Aristotle

4.2.6 Epicureans

4.2.7 Roman Philosophy

4.3 Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Philosophy

4.3.1 Defining Jewish, Christian, and Islamic Philosophy

4.3.2 Early Jewish Philosophy

4.3.3 Early Christian Philosophy

4.3.4 Islamic Philosophy

4.3.5 Late Medieval Philosophy in Christian Europe

4.3.6 Jewish Philosophers in the Christian and Islamic Worlds

4.3.7 The Rise of Reason in the Early Modern Era

5 Logic and Reasoning

5.1 Philosophical Methods for Discovering Truth

5.1.1 Dialectics and Philosophical Argumentation

5.1.2 The Use of Reason to Discover Truth

5.1.3 Testing Hypotheses

5.1.4 Laws of Logic

5.1.5 Normativity in Logic

5.2 Logical Statements

5.2.1 Conditionals

5.2.2 Universal Statements

5.3 Arguments

5.3.1 Getting to the Premises

5.3.2 The Difference between Truth and Logic

5.4 Types of Inferences

5.4.1 Deductive Reasoning

5.4.2 Inductive Inferences

5.4.3 Abductive Reasoning

5.5 Informal Fallacies

5.5.1 Fallacies of Relevance

5.5.2 Fallacies of Weak Induction

5.5.3 Fallacies of Unwarranted Assumption

5.5.4 Fallacies of Diversion

6 Metaphysics

6.1 Substance

6.1.1 Fundamentality: The One and the Many

Question	Answer
a term used to signify a movement beginning in the early 20th century focusing on the philosophical value of verifiable, logically consistent statements as providing objective information about the universe; associated with analytic philosophy.	Linguistic turn
views supporting the idea that the world cannot be interpreted through preexisting structures because there are no such existing structures; the idea that the universe is a confluence of forces that are given different meanings by human and nonhuman agents over time.	Post-structuralism
the attempt to cure mental illnesses by uncovering the unconscious elements that are said to be the foundation of human behavior.	Psychoanalysis
an analysis of how meaning is created through symbols, both linguistic and nonlinguistic.	Semiotics