Swahili can build a relative clause without a separate word such as ambaye or ambacho. A class-agreeing relative marker from the -o series enters the finite verb itself: anayesoma “who is reading,” tulivyoviagiza “that we ordered,” atakayekuja “who will come.” The result is compact, idiomatic, and common in both conversation and formal prose.
The construction is not available with every tense-aspect shape. It also does not replace the ordinary subject and object slots. To use it confidently, track the verb from left to right and distinguish the relative marker—which points to the head noun—from the markers representing the actor and object inside the event. Unless noted otherwise, the forms on this page are neutral in current Standard Swahili.
The relative marker has its own slot
In the most common tensed pattern, the order is:
subject marker + tense marker + relative marker + object marker + verb stem
The relative marker agrees with the head noun. Its core class forms are -ye (class 1), -o (classes 2, 3, 11, 14), -yo (classes 4, 6, 9), -lo (class 5), -cho (class 7), -vyo (class 8), and -zo (class 10). Locative -po, -ko, and -mo present a specific place, general location/direction, or interior.
| Normal spelling | Analytic build | Head reference |
|---|---|---|
| anayesoma | a-na-ye-soma | class 1 subject, “who is reading” |
| wanaosubiri | wa-na-o-subiri | class 2 subject, “who are waiting” |
| lililoanguka | li-li-lo-anguka | class 5 subject, “that fell” |
| nilichokisoma | ni-li-cho-ki-soma | class 7 object, “that I read” |
| tulivyoviagiza | tu-li-vyo-vi-agiza | class 8 object, “that we ordered” |
Hyphens are analytical only. Every finite form in the first column is written as one word in normal Swahili. The apparent repetitions have structure: in nilichokisoma, ni- is the first-person subject, -li- is past, -cho- relativizes a class 7 head, and -ki- is the class 7 object marker.
Mwanafunzi anayekaa mbele huuliza maswali ya kina.
The student who sits at the front asks probing questions.
Wateja wanaosubiri nje watahudumiwa kwanza.
The customers who are waiting outside will be served first.
The relative forms agree with class 1 mwanafunzi and class 2 wateja. English has the same “who” in both; Swahili changes -ye to -o and also changes the verbal subject marker from a- to wa-.
Subject and object relatives
In a subject relative, the head noun is also the actor or experiencer inside the relative clause. Both the subject marker and relative marker therefore point to the head.
Gari lililoziba mlango limeondolewa na mlinzi.
The car that blocked the entrance has been removed by the guard.
Class 5 gari gives li-li-lo-ziba: class 5 subject li-, past -li-, and class 5 relative -lo-. The main verb limeondolewa continues with class 5 concord.
In an object relative, the head is affected by an action performed by another subject. The initial subject marker identifies that actor, while the relative marker identifies the head.
Kitabu nilichokisoma safarini kilikuwa na mwisho wa kushtua.
The book that I read on the journey had a startling ending.
Ni- means “I,” but -cho- and -ki- point to class 7 kitabu. The subject and head are deliberately different. That is why glossing the whole prefix string as a single “relative pronoun” hides the useful mechanics.
Vifaa tulivyoviagiza vimewasili bila betri.
The devices that we ordered have arrived without batteries.
Class 8 vifaa is resumed by relative -vyo- and object -vi- inside tulivyoviagiza, then by subject vi- in vimewasili. Swahili keeps class-based nonhuman reference active where English merely uses “that” and “they.”
The relative marker and a resumptive object marker
The relative marker does not occupy the object-marker slot. In object relatives, a class-agreeing object marker can therefore follow it: ni-li-cho-ki-soma. This is sometimes called “resumptive” agreement because the object marker resumes the same head already identified by -cho-.
With definite human objects, an object marker is normally expected (neutral Standard):
Mhandisi tuliyemwalika ametuma ramani zilizorekebishwa.
The engineer whom we invited has sent revised plans.
The build is tu-li-ye-m-walika: tu- “we,” past -li-, class 1 relative -ye-, human object -m-, and -walika “invite.” Do not omit -m- merely because English “whom” already marks the relation.
With nonhuman objects, object marking is sensitive to definiteness, salience, and the lexical behavior of the verb. A relative without an object marker is also standard:
Barua niliyoandika jana ilitumwa asubuhi.
The letter that I wrote yesterday was sent this morning.
Here ni-li-yo-andika has class 9 relative -yo- but no class 9 object -i-. The object role is recoverable from the relative construction. By contrast, nilichokisoma naturally presents a specific class 7 object with explicit object agreement. There is no honest one-line rule making nonhuman object markers always obligatory or always forbidden; animacy, specificity, verb choice, and discourse all matter.
Tense and polarity restrictions
The incorporated relative works productively with several dedicated patterns:
| Meaning | Class 1 model | Analysis |
|---|---|---|
| present/progressive | anayesoma | a-na-ye-soma |
| past | aliyesoma | a-li-ye-soma |
| future | atakayesoma | a-ta-ka-ye-soma |
| negative | asiyesoma | a-si-ye-soma |
| general/habitual suffixal | asomaye | a-soma-ye |
Future relatives contain the dedicated -taka- sequence before the relative marker. Do not try to insert -ye- directly into ordinary atasoma. Negative incorporated relatives use -si- and the relative marker rather than an ordinary independent negative finite form.
Mtu atakayekupigia simu jioni ana taarifa za malipo.
The person who will call you this evening has the payment details.
Vifaa visivyofanya kazi visitumwe kwa wateja.
Devices that do not work should not be sent to customers.
The first build is a-ta-ka-ye-ku-pigia; the second begins vi-si-vyo-fanya. In standard spelling both are closed words. The negative relative visivyo- and negative subjunctive visitumwe are separate verbs with separate functions.
Crucially, the ordinary perfect marker -me- does not freely combine with an inserted -o relative marker. Forms modeled on aliyemefika are nonstandard. If perfect aspect itself matters, use amba- plus an ordinary perfect verb: mtu ambaye amefika. If the event can be framed as completed past, mtu aliyefika often translates naturally as “the person who arrived/has arrived.” Compound tenses and hu- habitual likewise favor the separate amba- strategy.
Mkurugenzi ambaye amekuwa akisafiri atarejea kesho.
The director who has been traveling will return tomorrow.
The perfect-progressive meaning remains transparent after ambaye. For a systematic choice between the two strategies, see amba- versus incorporated relatives.
The suffixal general relative
The relative marker can follow the verb stem in a tenseless or general relative: asomaye “one who reads,” wasomao “those who read.” This pattern is grammatical but elevated in much contemporary usage (formal, literary, or proverbial). Everyday conversation usually prefers anayesoma for an ongoing present situation or an amba- clause where aspect must be explicit.
Msema kweli hapendwi na wengi.
One who tells the truth is not liked by many.
The lexicalized proverbial expression msema kweli uses an agent noun rather than asemaye, illustrating that proverbs often choose compact traditional structures (proverbial/literary). A fully relative version in formal prose is:
Asemaye ukweli bila woga anastahili kusikilizwa.
One who speaks the truth without fear deserves to be heard.
Do not treat suffixal forms as interchangeable stylistic ornaments in an A2 conversation. Their register and generalizing meaning matter.
Pro-drop and emphasis
Incorporated relative marking does not make independent personal pronouns obligatory. The verb still carries subject person:
Nilichagua ripoti iliyoeleza gharama zote.
I chose the report that explained all the costs.
Mimi nilichagua ripoti iliyoeleza gharama; yeye akachagua iliyofupishwa.
I chose the report that explained the costs; she chose the shortened one.
The first sentence is neutral. The second adds mimi and yeye for contrast (emphatic, neutral in register); ni- and a- remain inside their verbs. Class 9 ripoti is tracked by i-li-yo- in iliyoeleza and by headless iliyofupishwa. Most reference thus remains embedded in concord, while free personal pronouns organize the discourse.
Common Mistakes
Putting the relative marker before tense
❌ Mwanafunzi aye-na-soma amefika.
Incorrect — in a present incorporated relative, -na- precedes -ye-, and normal spelling has no analytic hyphens.
✅ Mwanafunzi anayesoma amefika.
The student who is studying has arrived.
Using one invariant marker for all nonhuman heads
❌ Viti tulichokiagiza havijafika bado.
Incorrect — class 8 viti requires -vyo- and, when repeated, object -vi-.
✅ Viti tulivyoviagiza havijafika bado.
The chairs that we ordered have not arrived yet.
Forcing the perfect into the incorporated template
❌ Mgeni aliyemefika anasubiri mapokezini.
Incorrect in Standard Swahili — -me- does not combine here as an ordinary incorporated relative tense.
✅ Mgeni ambaye amefika anasubiri mapokezini.
The guest who has arrived is waiting at reception.
Dropping the human object marker
❌ Daktari tuliyeona aliomba vipimo vingine.
Nonstandard in the intended definite-human reading — m- should resume the doctor as object.
✅ Daktari tuliyemwona aliomba vipimo vingine.
The doctor whom we saw requested further tests.
Key Takeaways
An incorporated relative is a structured verb, not a fused translation of English “who” or “that.” The subject marker identifies the actor, tense occupies its dedicated position, the -o-series marker agrees with the head, and an object marker may follow—normally so for a definite human object. Present, past, future, negative, and suffixal general patterns each have their own shape; perfect and complex aspect usually call for amba- instead.
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Start learning Swahili →Related Topics
- The amba- Relative Pronoun SeriesB2 — Build flexible relative clauses with ambaye, ambao, ambacho, and the other amba- forms while maintaining human and noun-class agreement.
- nani and nini: Who and WhatA1 — Ask who and what with invariant nani and nini in subject, object, and copular questions without importing English question word order.
- Relative Concord: -o Forms by ClassB2 — Use ye, o, yo, lo, cho, vyo, zo, po, ko, and mo inside Swahili verbs to link relative clauses to their head nouns.
- Relative Concord inside the VerbB2 — Build incorporated Swahili relatives in subject–TAM–relative–object–root order and keep each class-agreeing slot tied to its grammatical controller.
- amba- or an Incorporated Relative?B2 — Choose between separate amba- relatives and compact relative concord inside the Swahili verb by TAM, role, clause weight and register.